The Swaziland National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 1999

[ Contents | Executive Summary | 1.0 Introduction | 2.0 The Status of Biological Diversity in Swaziland | 3.0 Assessment of Current Conservation and Management of Biodiversity in Swaziland | 4.0 Strategy and Action Plan | 5.0 Implementation of BSAP | 6.0 Monitoring and Evaluation | 7.0 References ]

3.0 Assessment of Current Conservation and Management of Biodiversity in Swaziland

3.1 Institutional Framework

Although the work of every government ministry impacts on the biological diversity of Swaziland, there are three main government institutions/bodies responsible for managing biodiversity: Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC), Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC). Both SEA and SNTC are currently under the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Communication (MTEC). In addition to these government bodies there are a number of private bodies and NGOs which also play a role in conserving and managing the biodiversity of Swaziland.

Swaziland National Trust Commission

The SNTC is a parastatal organisation that was established by the National Trust Commission Act of 13^th March 1972 which was amended in 1973. The mission statement of the SNTC is:

"To conserve Swaziland’s natural and cultural heritage through sustainable utilisation of natural resources and promotion of environmental awareness throughout the country."

The SNTC Act, however, restricts the activities of the SNTC to declared parks and reserves, and national monuments. The SNTC Board of Commissioners are appointed by the relevant Minister. In addition to Accounts and Administration, there are five other departments: 

1. the Museum,
2. Monuments, Relics and Antiques,
3. Parks and Reserves, 
4. Environmental Education, and
5. Community Outreach. 

Since the SNTC is a parastatal, 90% of its funding comes from government. More about the role of the SNTC is presented in sections 4.2, 4.4 and 4.6.

Swaziland Environment Authority

The SEA was established through the Swaziland Environment Authority Act No. 15 of 16^th November 1992. The main function of the SEA is to coordinate the government’s efforts to incorporate environmental factors into Swaziland’s development process.

The SEA Board is comprised of a chairperson, a secretary (the Director of the SEA), and representatives from eight ministries, four NGOs and four private citizens. At present, the SEA staff all fall under a single department headed by the Director.

According to the Act, the SEA has a mandate to carry out the following fifteen obligations:

• Establish guidelines on environmental pollution,
• To assist the Minister in formulating policies on environmental matters,
• To develop, in conjunction with other Government authorities, economic measures that will encourage environmentally sound and sustainable activities,
• To coordinate activities of all bodies concerned with environmental matters and at the same time act as a channel of communication,
• To monitor environmental trends in the country with a view to protecting the environment and improving the environment,
• To carry out immediate and long term studies , investigations, and research on environmental issues,
• To carry out training, skills upgrading and education programmes in order to create national environmental awareness,
• To ensure that environmental matters are catered for in national development planning,
• To act as the focal point in the country’s collaboration with regional and international organizations dealing with environmental matters,
• To create and maintain environmental safeguards in all developments that impinge, or are like to impinge, on the environment without necessarily compromising social and economic advancement,
• To report to the Minister any adverse environmental issues as well as make corrective measures,
• To prepare guidelines for environmental impact assessments for all development projects
• To review all projects that have a present or potential environmental impact,
• To control all forms of environmental pollution including those caused by discharge of toxic waste, and
• To institute measures for coordinating and enforcing environmental legislation and observance of international conventions.

These fifteen obligations can be summarised as four main responsibilities, which are to:

1. promote the development of policies, legislation and enforcement mechanisms needed for sound environmental management,
2. coordinate the activities of all bodies concerned with environmental matters and serve as liaison for national and international organisations on environmental matters,
3. monitor trends in the state of the environment, and
4. conduct and promote research on environmental matters, and promote environmental training and education to increase public awareness and participation.

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC)

MOAC has a number of departments and sections which are currently directly responsible for the conservation and management of biodiversity in the country. The main function of the Fisheries Section is aquaculture and fisheries management.

The role of the Forestry Section is ensure that the forestry resources are managed and conserved optimally in order to prevent harmful consequences of exploitation. This entails maintaining a forest resource inventory and monitoring the rate of deforestation, provision of efficient extension services to farmers and undertaking research on propagation of indigenous and exotic tree species. The Forestry Section has four obligations:

• Promotion of optimum productivity of forest resources.
• Management, protection and conservation of forest resources with due regard to immediate and long-term socio-economic benefits.
• Coordination of timber harvesting, wildlife management and water conservation in cooperation with other ministries.
• Encouragement of wood lots and efficient timber processing.

Not all these obligations, however, are currently being met.

The Gene Bank, situated at the Malkerns Research Station, is responsible for the collection, conservation, documentation and characterisation of plant genetic resources in Swaziland, but with an emphasis on indigenous crops and crop relatives. This unit has collected and conserved (using modern facilities) almost all indigenous crops from around the country. Storage facilities (such as fridges) are funded by the SADC Plant Genetic Resources Centre. All other aspects of the programme are funded by the Government of Swaziland. To date, several researchers (e.g. from University of Swaziland) have utilised material collected by this unit.

The Herbarium is the repository of plant material collected from Swaziland. At present the Herbarium is situated at the Malkerns Research Station, but this is a temporary arrangement. The lack of a permanent site for the Herbarium is of considerable concern, and must surely act to impede the progress of this unit.

A SADC programme recently launched (January 2000) is involved with the conservation and management of farm animal genetic resources. This programme (named the "SADC Farm Animal Genetic Resources Management Program") is being aggressively pursued in Swaziland. The national program coordinator and the team are housed in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (Department of Veterinary and Livestock Services) where they have office space and modern computer facilities. 

The current focus of this unit is characterisation of local breeds of cattle, chickens, goat and sheep. Its three objectives are:

1. to build a data bank comprising the characterisation information;
2. to identify those characteristics of farm animals which require preservation; and
3. to develop breeding programmes which make better use of genetic characteristics of the animals identified. 

The latter is to be conducted with the direct participation of local communities.

Private Reserves

Big Game Parks is a privately owned body which manages three reserves in the country (Mlilwane & Mkhaya Game Reserves, and Hlane Royal National Park, which is held in trust for the Nation by the King). Big Game Parks, thus, contributes to the management of the country’s biodiversity.

A few other title deed land (TDL) owners have turned to ecotourism (see section 4.4) as a business venture. Private reserves and game ranches, however, cover only a small area of Swaziland, and thus their contribution to the conservation and management of Swaziland’s biodiversity is still limited (mainly to larger mammals). However, the area of land dedicated to ecotourism and game farming (and other conservation-oriented activities) is steadily increasing with the result that these TDL areas may play an important role in the future.

NGOs

Yonge Nawe is a leading NGO devoted to environmental issues in Swaziland. However, Yonge Nawe’s role is primarily an educational one, and not a management one (see see section 4.6 for more information on Yonge Nawe). The Umbuluzi Catchment Association, as its name suggests, is involved with the management and conservation of the Mbuluzi Catchment and the associated biodiversity. Other active NGOs and societies include the Natural History of Swaziland, the Conservation Trust of Swaziland, the Traditional Healers Organisation, the Lubombo Conservancy and the Mhlosinga Wildlife Producers Association.

3.2 Analysis of Institutional Framework

The role currently played by the above-mentioned institutions in the conservation of Swaziland’s biodiversity is analysed in terms of whether the mandate of the institution includes:

1. creation of a protected area network covering all ecosystems;
2. establishment of programmes for sustainable utilisation of biodiversity (such as community-based natural resource management or CBNRM);
3. conservation of agro-biodiversity; and
4. minimising the risk of LMOs. 

What is abundantly clear from this analysis, is that the current institutional framework is currently not adequate or effective for conserving Swaziland’s biodiversity (refer to Table 3.1). The only aspect of biodiversity conservation which is currently being aggressively pursued is the conservation of agro-biodiversity. Furthermore all the institutions are underfunded and require additional human resources.

This analysis by itself, however, can be misleading. For example, the SNTC manages three gazetted nature reserves which (combined) protect a large portion of the nation’s vertebrate diversity (e.g. see Monadjem, 1997b). The SNTC has also actively expanded its protected area network in the past decade. The SNTC, therefore, is playing a critical role in protecting the nation’s biodiversity. However, the SNTC does not have the mandate to create a protected area network covering all ecosystems. 

A similar situation exists with regard to the SNTC’s Community Outreach Programme and the establishment of sustainable resource management programmes in local communities. The Outreach programme does, inter alia, assist local communities (especially those neighbouring SNTC reserves) to manage resources sustainably. For example, Mlawula Nature Reserve was instrumental in the development of Shewula Nature Reserve (a CBNRM programme on SNL). However, the SNTC does not have the legal mandate to establish community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) programmes.

The SEA has also played an important role. For example, the law stipulates that an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) must precede any development. The SEA is directly responsible for reviewing these EIAs and issuing compliance certificates where appropriate. Through this EIA process, the erosion biodiversity in Swaziland has certainly been curbed. The SEA is also charged with increasing public awareness on environmental issues (which includes biodiversity). The SEA has also been involved with developing awareness and expertise in the field of biosafety.

Likewise, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) has significantly contributed to biodiversity conservation. MOAC houses the Gene Bank and the SADC Farm Animal Genetic Resources Management Program. Both these programmes are currently active and producing positive results in terms of the conservation of agro-biodiversity. MOAC is also responsible for developing a forestry policy which will have a significant positive impact on the conservation of forestry resources and biodiversity.

Table 3.1 Summary of the current institutional framework with respect to the mandate for the conservation of biodiversity in Swaziland

Table 3.2 The Acts of Parliament which directly pertain to, or impact on, the maintenance of biodiversity in Swaziland

3.3 Legislation and Policy

To effectively conserve Swaziland’s biodiversity, appropriate laws must be in place, and must be enforced. Swaziland’s laws concerning the protection of most of its vertebrate animals are among the strongest in Africa. The various laws and conventions pertaining or affecting the maintenance of Swaziland’s animal diversity are discussed below. It should be noted that Swaziland does not yet have a Biodiversity Policy (SEAP 1997), although a draft policy does appear in the draft Environmental Policy.

Acts of Parliament

All acts of Parliament pertaining to the environment are reviewed in SEAP (1997). The acts of Parliament which pertain to, or impact on, the maintenance of Swaziland’s biodiversity are listed in Table 3.2.

The National Trust Commission Act of 1972 allows for the establishment of National Parks and Nature Reserves. The objectives of these parks and reserves are outline in Section 15 of the Act and include the promotion and conservation of indigenous animals and plants and the protection of the natural ecology and environment of the park or reserve. These parks and reserves are to be controlled and supervised by Swaziland National Trust Commission (Section 6). The establishment of this Commission is mentioned in Section 3. Activities that are destructive to the existence of these parks and reserves (as set out in the Objectives in Section 15) are prohibited. Prohibited activities are listed in Section 20 and include, among many others, the killing or injuring of plants and animals, and the removal of any object from within the park or reserve. However, a failure of the SNTC Act is that it does not call for the establishment of a network of protected areas that covers all ecosystems.

The Swaziland Environment Authority Act of 1992 is concerned mainly with the maintenance of a healthy and ecologically functioning environment. Thus, this Act affects the maintenance of Swaziland’s biodiversity in the sense that it ensures that the environment, and hence the habitat of many indigenous plants and animals, is not destroyed. The functions and responsibilities of the Swaziland Environment Authority (established in Section 4) are listed in Section 5 and include the setting of standards relating to the pollution of air, water and land, and the monitoring and control of any environmental pollution.

Of particular significance is the Game Act of 1953 (King’s Office) which was practically replaced in 1991 and slightly amended in 1993. This Act provides for the harsh punishment of illegal hunting. In the case of illegal hunting of Specially Protected Game (which includes both species of rhino, elephant and lion) the offender, if found guilty, is liable to imprisonment without the option of a fine (Section 8). In the case of the illegal hunting of Royal Game (which includes nearly all medium and large-sized mammals and all birds except for Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris which, incidentally, has been incorrectly recorded as the Crowned Guineafowl Numida mitrata) the guilty offender is liable to pay a fine of up to E30 000 or spend up to five years in prison. Furthermore, the Non-Bailable Offences Order of 1993 cites the contravention of Section 8 ("Prohibition of hunting and dealing in specially protected and royal game") of the Game Act as a non-bailable offence. Thus persons charged with illegal hunting are not granted bail.

Since the passing of the amendments of 1991 there has been a concomitant decrease in poaching in the Big Game Parks (T.E. Reilly, personal communication). It would thus appear that the revitalized Game Act is serving its function (which is the protection of wild game). The Game Act, however, does not list (and therefore does not protect) any species of reptiles (other than crocodiles and pythons), amphibians, fish or invertebrates. These latter groups, thus, do not currently enjoy any formal protection in Swaziland.

The Flora Protection Act of 1952 (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives) provides legal protection to a small group of plants (30 genera and species). This Act has now been revised, passed by Parliament and signed into law by the King. The new and improved Flora Protection Act provides protection for over 200 species, with harsh punishment for offenders (up to E2 500 fine or 2 years in prison). It remains to be seen whether this new Act will be enforced. The Act also makes provisions for the establishment of botanical gardens.

The Protection of Fresh Water Fish Act of 1937 (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives) provides some protection to indigenous species of fish by stipulating a "close season" during which time fishing is not permitted (Section 3), and also by prohibiting the capture of fish by certain destructive means (Sections 8 and 9). However, no formal protection is given to specially threatened species or species whose populations within Swaziland are currently on the decline.

The Plant Control Act of 1981 (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives) prohibits the exportation of indigenous plants without a written permission from the Swaziland National Trust Commission.

• It protects the phytosanitary condition of our flora by insisting on a phytosanitary certificate for all soil and plant material entering the country.
• The Swaziland Citrus Board is empowered to authorize the phytosanitary status of citrus consignments.
• The Minister of Agriculture is solely responsible to regulate or prohibit the importation of wild mushrooms.
• The Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture ensures the protection of land from noxious weeds. The secretary also grants permission to dispose of or use for building or manufacturing any article of timber infested by wood borer. This serves to protect our timber trees from certain insect pests.
• Citizens of Swaziland are empowered to notify inspectors in the Ministry of Agriculture about the appearance of flying locusts, nymphs or eggs deposited by locusts in their property. This protects our flora from devastation by brown or red locusts (including Locusta pardalina and Nomadacris septemfasciata). Nurseries must be registered and inspected.

Certain sections of the Plant Control Act of 1981 make reference to animals. Part II, III, IV, VIII and IX outline measures to control pests and the importation of alien (exotic) species. Section 14 of the Act prohibits the importation of Second Schedule items which includes inter alia all alien animals. Since alien species are often a threat to the indigenous fauna and flora, this section of the Act, if enforced, should contribute positively towards the maintenance of Swaziland’s biodiversity.

3.4 Regional and International Conventions

Swaziland has signed and ratified numerous International Treaties or Agreements that affect the environment (reviewed in SEAP). Of these, the following directly impact on biodiversity conservation:

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1992).
• United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1992).
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) (1994).
• The United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (1973).
• African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1968).

Swaziland has signed the following conventions, but has not yet ratified:

• Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) (1979).
• Lusaka Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora (1994).
• World Heritage Sites (1972).

3.5 In-situ Conservation

In-situ conservation refers to the conservation of plants and animals in their natural habitats. In-situ conservation is generally viewed as the preferred method of conservation world-wide. An analysis of the effectiveness of the current protected areas network in Swaziland has been presented in sections 2.2 and 2.3. This section deals with the location, administration and management of the current protected areas network. This section has relied heavily on the Forest Policy report on the identification of protection worthy areas (Deall et al., 2000).

Nature reserves and game parks

There are a total of 17 conservation areas in Swaziland (Table 3.3; Deall et al., 2000) of which six are gazetted protected areas. 

Three are controlled by the Swaziland National Trust Commission (Malolotja, Mlawula and Mantenga), and three by Big Game Parks (Mlilwane, Hlane and Mkhaya). 

All except Hlane (which was proclaimed under the Game Act of 1953) have been proclaimed under the SNTC Act. 

These six gazetted protected areas cover 86% of the conservation area network. The remaining 11 conservation areas (Mhlosinga, Mbuluzi, Simunye, Phophonyane, Muti Muti, Shewula, Sibhetsumoya, Oberland, Hawane, Nisela and Shonalanga) are not gazetted and therefore have no legal status. This limits their security as conservation areas, as demonstrated by Ubombo Sugar’s plan to cultivate sugar cane on 100 ha in Mhlosinga Nature Reserve (covering 1/4 of its area). 

There are several privately-owned ranches (e.g. IYSIS and Panata Ranch) that contain wild game but cannot be considered nature reserves or game parks at this stage, as their main objective is not the conservation of biodiversity.

Of the 17 conservation areas, some are contiguous e.g. five conservation areas (Hlane, Mlawula, Shewula, Mbuluzi and Simunye) together form an area in excess of 42 000 ha. Mlilwane and Mantenga are also connected, while Malolotja adjoins Songimvelo Nature Reserve in South Africa to form a trans-national conservation area of over 40 000 ha. With the exception of Mkhaya and Nisela, the remaining conservation areas are all less than 500 ha, making them too small to support viable populations of most species.

The spatial distribution of these conservation areas is not even across Swaziland. Most of the conservation areas (10) are situated in the eastern third (10 areas) and northern third (9 areas) of the country, with a shortage of conservation areas in the southern third, and a noticeable lack of conservation areas in the south western quarter (Figure 3.1).

Of the 17 conservation areas, only Shewula is on SNL. This conservation area was recently established (1999) with the help of Mbuluzi and Mlawula with the aim of generating sustainable income for the local community. The success of Shewula will surely set a precent for the establishment of CBNRM on SNL, and must therefore be viewed as critical.

Thirty-four protection worthy areas were identified in an anonymous 1979 report. These areas are distributed throughout Swaziland and cover a large range of vegetation associations and habitats. However, only four of these areas (Mlilwane, Hlane, Mlawula and Malolotja) have legal protection (i.e. proclaimed). The remaining 30 areas lie outside of formally protected areas. The criteria used in this assessment are not quite clear. The report states that the "criteria used in this identification exercise were based principally on maintaining the greatest possible degree of endemic diversity both on the microscale of the individual parks and on the macroscale of the park system within the Kingdom generally". However, the units of measurement are not stated clearly. Despite this shortcoming, this report remains the only field-based survey of protection worthy areas in Swaziland.

A recent desktop survey (Deall et al., 2000) reviewed the subject of protection worthy areas and identified 44 such areas (Figure 3.2) based on clear, but crude, criteria in five main categories, viz, biological value, physical value, socio-economic value, long-term sustainability value and availability for protection. In addition, these 44 areas were ranked according to their scores, providing a prioritised list of protection worthy areas (see Figure 3.2). The findings of this desktop study need, urgently, to be corroborated by field-based studies.

Figure 3.2. Map showing the distribution of the 44 protection worthy areas

Royal Burial Grounds

Royal Burial Grounds (in the Mdzimba Mountains and in the Mhlosheni area) are strictly off-limits to the public and, hence, enjoy a level of protection sometimes surpassing that of proclaimed nature reserves and game parks. Despite being well protected, Royal Burial Grounds generally cover far smaller areas than reserves. Furthermore, since Royal Burial Grounds are not open to the public, they have not been well surveyed resulting in the biodiversity of these areas being poorly known. Hence the conservation value of these areas remains unknown.

Table 3.3 Protected areas in Swaziland

Source Deall et al., 2000

Figure 3.1. Map showing the distribution of currently protected areas

Not available

Source Deall et al., 2000

3.6 Ex-situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation refers to the conservation of plants and animals in non-natural habitats for example in zoos, botanical gardens and seed storage facilities.

Animals

There are currently few ex-situ measures in place for the conservation of indigenous, non-domestic animals. There are no reputable zoos, snake parks or crocodile farms (although crocodiles are being kept in captivity by a few land-owners). Ostriches are being bred in captivity on several privately owned properties, the largest population being controlled by Big Game Parks. However, all of the ostriches currently occurring in Swaziland (either in captivity or in the wild) originate from sources outside of the country and genetically do not represent the (extinct) indigenous population.

A few species of large herbivores (e.g. roan, sable, tsessebe, elephant) and large carnivores (e.g. lion, cheetah, leopard) are kept in a semi-wild state at Hlane National Park, Mkhaya Game Reserve, Mlilwane Game Reserve and a few other nature reserves and private ranches. These areas form important refuges for these threatened species in Swaziland, and may serve as focii for future re-introductions to areas where the species are currently locally extinct.

Nguni cattle (an indigenous breed adapted to the Swazi environment) are being conserved at Nsalitje and other areas. Some measures are in place to conserving indigenous goats at Manyoyaneni Ranch (Big Bend). Breeding programmes will be developed for other local farm animals (see section 3.1 above).

Other than for farm animals, there is currently no justification for the development of ex-situ initiatives to conserve animal diversity in Swaziland. Ex-situ conservation measures for animals is generally prohibitive expensive. Furthermore, there are no endemic animals that are critically endangered which would require urgent intervention to prevent their extinction.

Plants

Ex-situ conservation of plant genetic resources in Swaziland is the formal responsibility of the Gene Bank (located at the Malkerns Research Station, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives). At present, the Unit’s effort is expended on collecting and conserving genetic resources from crops and crop relatives, a task which it has conducted with considerable success (see section 3.1 above).

Nurseries are an important repository of plant material. There are numerous private nurseries scattered around the country, most of which deal mainly in exotic species. A small number of nurseries deal in indigenous species in the Manzini, Simunye and Maguga areas. However, there is a real need for nurseries specialising in indigenous species.

The National Herbarium is situated at the Malkerns Research Station (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives). Compton, during his survey of the flora of Swaziland, collected a large number of plants which served as the foundation of this Herbarium. The National Herbarium is part of SABONET (Southern African Botanical Network; this is a GEF-funded project which aims to electronically link-up all major herbaria in southern Africa and to provide support for modernising the storage of information at these herbaria via the use of appropriate computer database programmes). Funding for this programme officially ends in mid-2001.

Botanical gardens are an important form of ex-situ conservation, not only for the plants that are cultivated but also for the animals that are associated with those plants (such as insects and birds). At present, there are no botanical gardens in Swaziland, although there are plans to develop two such gardens (one in the newly created Mantenga Nature Reserve, and the second at Lobamba).

Considering the relatively large number of endemic plants (18 species), and the fact that many others are threatened with extinction (see section 2.3), the development of ex-situ conservation measures to protect these species may be prudent. Botanical gardens provide this opportunity, and should be the preferred mode of ex-situ conservation for endemic and threatened plants.

3.7 Public Education and Awareness

This section has been taken from the Swaziland Environmental Action Plan (1997), and for further details the latter document should be consulted. Environmental Education in Swaziland began largely through the efforts of the Swaziland National Trust Commission, non-governmental organisations and individual initiatives. A National Environmental Education Programme (NEEP) was established in 1975 under the auspices of the SNTC at Mlilwane Game Reserve. The programme was largely designed for school children who visited the reserve, and consisted of a combination of interpretation and presentations, using visual aids and films. This programme is presently being coordinated from the SNTC Headquarters.

The formal education system

In the 1970s and 1980s Swaziland, assisted by USAID began developing its own primary school curricula, with environmental concerns being incorporated into some of the subjects.

At the tertiary level, the Department of Geography and Environmental Planning (UNISWA) offers a course on Environmental Studies, while the Department of Biological Sciences has been offering a short course on Conservation Biology. At teacher training colleges (SCOT, VOCTIM) there are no courses on environment being offered, although some effort has been made to incorporate environmental issues into existing courses.

Non-formal environmental education

The National Environmental Education Programme (NEEP) is the Government’s agency for creating environmental public awareness. The following are some of its current activities:

• Acting as facilitator and secretariat to the Environmental Education, Public Awareness and Participation Committee which comprises representatives from the Ministry of Education, private game reserves which conduct EE, Yonge Nawe and UNISWA. This committee is carrying out a coordinating, networking, and catalysing function for EE activities in the country (such as facilitating the "Clean and Beautiful Swaziland" Forum, a voluntary association of representatives of government agencies, NGOs and private sector who work towards promoting better waste disposal, recycling, rehabilitation of eroded areas, reforestation, and appropriate legislation and education to bring about greater public participation in keeping Swaziland clean and beautiful).
• Operating three EE resources centres (Malolotja, Mlawula and Lobamba).
• Strengthening the capacity of the Curriculum Centre to incorporate EE into the formal education system through workshops for teachers and production of materials.

Non-governmental organisations

Yonge Nawe is a leading NGO working on Environmental Education (EE). It was originally formed to establish and support school conservation clubs. Its functions have expanded to include the promotion of adult conservation clubs and EE workshops for a wide range of the community. It is assisting communities in some of their environmental projects. In addition, it produces and distributes some EE materials.

There is an increasing number of NGOs (other than Yonge Nawe) which are now promoting EE. Among these are Big Game Parks, Emanti Esive, Family Life Association, the Swaziland Farmers Development Foundation, Umbuluzi Catchment Association, the Natural History Society of Swaziland, the Conservation Trust of Swaziland, and the Green Cross.

The media

Radio is widely used in Swaziland, and presently, through free time allocated to line ministries and NGOs, is being used to raise public environmental awareness. Newspaper space and TV time is expensive and till now has not been used systematically. The Swazi Times introduced a weekly Environmental Page (which appeared on Saturdays), but this has now been abandoned.

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