The Convention to Combat Desertification
Swaziland National Action Programme

CONTENTS | SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION | SECTION 2: DESERTIFICATION IN SWAZILAND | SECTION 3: EXECUTION OF THE NAP PROCESS | SECTION 4: RESPONSES TO DESERTIFICATION | SECTION 5: SETTING THE PRIORITIES | SECTION 6: IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NATIONAL ACTION PROGRAMME | LIST OF REFERENCES AND ACRONYMS | LINKS

SECTION 2: DESERTIFICATION IN SWAZILAND

2.1 Introduction

This section intends to expose the desertification problem in Swaziland with an aim of putting the NAP into context. The section opens by defining desertification and present a brief exposition of the environmental state in the country. Lastly, an elaborate, but not conclusive overview on the causes of desertification in Swaziland is presented.

2.2 Defining desertification

Desertification is generally regarded as the degradation of land especially in arid, semi - arid and dry sub - humid climatic regions as a result of human and climatic processes. It is quite common for desertification to be understood interchangeably with land degradation. Locally the two may imply similar processes, while ideally land degradation has to do with a decline or loss of productive capacity of a piece of land due to human activities and habitation patterns.

2.3 Desertification status in Swaziland

The magnitude of desertification in the country is not comparable with other sub - Saharan African countries where large portions of their territories have been rendered unsuitable or unproductive for human occupation. Presenting the extent of desertification in Swaziland is a difficult task especially in the absence of documentation assessing the extent of land degradation and technology used to combat desertification. As a result, the discussion will be confined to a limited number of variables which include soil erosion, biomass productivity, bush encroachment and use of farm chemicals.

It has been estimated that more than half (55%) of all communal grazing land is seriously or very seriously eroded. Although there are differences in the magnitude of soil erosion from one physiographic region to another, the rate of soil erosion and land degradation is increasing in almost all the regions. It has been estimated that severe soil erosion in the Middleveld has doubled in the last 25 years and this trend is likely to continue (Mushala et. al., 1995). Consequently, more than half of the grazing land is degraded and suffer a noticeable decline in productivity. About 55% of pasture land can hardly produce 100 kilograms of dry matter per hectare (Downing and Zuke, 1996). This productivity estimate may be meaningless without a statement on the optimum productivity of pastures. There is also the problem of bush encroachment which is prevalent in the lower middleveld and the lowveld. Intensive use of farming chemicals further encourages land degradation through soil acidification. Currently, the use of soil acidifying nitrogen - based fertilisers is quite high (Central Statistical Bulletin, 1989/90).

2.4 Causes of desertification

Factors causing desertification and land degradation are numerous and they do not operate in isolation. The magnitude of the causes of desertification vary with the level of socio - economic development and resilience of the physical environment. Desertification is fundamentally a result of the depletion and removal of vegetation cover that protects the soil from agents of erosion and the loss of soil moisture to the atmosphere. The depletion of vegetation is commonly attributed to human activities including settlement patterns. Climatic processes, especially drought also contribute to loss of vegetation.

Downing and Zuke (1996) have put causes of desertification into two categories namely; natural climatic causes and socio - economic causes. In this report, the causes are sub-divided into four categories. The categorisation is based on causes that are related to (i) climatic processes , (ii) topography, (iii) human habitation patterns (population distribution in the country) and (iv) human activities.

2.4.1 Climatic processes

The variability of climatic conditions, especially rainfall quantity, is a major natural cause of desertification. For example, the drought incidence in the first half of the 1990s had adverse impact on land productivity. To a large extent the amount of rainfall received countrywide was inadequate for vegetation to thrive. Considering that the physiographic regions of the country experience different climatic conditions, drought incidences also vary within Swaziland. The magnitude of land degradation also follows a similar pattern. The effects of drought are largely felt in the lowveld region of Swaziland which is characterised by an unreliable mean rainfall of less than 500 mm per year. This cannot support much vegetation growth especially under the characteristic hot temperature conditions which cause evapotranspiration to be in excess of the rainfall received. Therefore, continuous drought incidences in this region may soon result in complete destruction of the vegetation cover, exposing the soil to erosion agents. Based on climatic conditions, the lowveld region is most prone to desertification and the conditions improves towards the highveld region.

2.4.2 Topography

The general relief of the country varies from high altitudes in the highveld to gentle sloping terrain in the lowveld. Topography often works in conjunction with other factors, especially climatic conditions and the susceptibility of the soil to erosion. The mean annual rainfall amount increases substantially from 500 mm/year in the lowveld to 1500 mm/year in the highveld. Humid conditions in the highveld and upper middleveld promote a vigorous growth of grass and other types of vegetation. On the other hand, the humid conditions also facilitate the removal of loose soil material down slope. The rugged nature and steep slopes of the highveld and middleveld increases the erosive potential of surface run-off . Most types of soils in Swaziland are highly susceptible to erosion, especially the highly weathered ferrosols, with a thin saprolite. A large body of the ferralsols are found in the highveld and upper middleveld. The soils in the highveld and middleveld are also characterised by shallow depths which restricts the growth of vegetation, particularly trees. As a result, the highveld and upper middleveld experience massive gully formations along steep slopes.

2.4.3 Population distribution pattern

In reviewing human habitation patterns, it is important to consider the population size, its growth rate and distribution in relation to available land resources throughout the country. There is a considerable increase in population density in the country. For instance, the national population density increased from 21.6 people per km2 in 1966 to 39.2 people per km2 in 1986 (Census Report vol. 4, 1986). This does not imply that the population is evenly distributed throughout the country. Some areas are more settled than others due to several factors. One of the most important factors is land tenure. With the exception of urban areas, SNL is the most densely populated area of all tenure systems in Swaziland (Table 1). Of the approximately 66% of the total Swazi population in rural areas, a large proportion is on SNL which accounts for only 59% of the total surface area (17 000 km2) of the country.

POPULATION DENSITY IN SWAZILAND ACCORDING TO AREA AND TENURE

On SNL, where population density is high, there is intensive utilisation of land and environmental resources. This may proceed to reach levels where the resources are depleted beyond a possibility of regeneration. As such, the total surface area of Swaziland cannot support the rapidly growing Swazi population. Since the land resources are finite this creates a disequilibrium between demand for land and its supply. Often, marginal land is brought into cultivation and settlement and large portions of virgin land are cleared of vegetation cover to make available spaces for cultivation and settlement. Land resources in densely populated areas may also be made available through land sub - division (land fragmentation). Intensive land fragmentation results in ever reduced sizes of land holdings. This may continue until the sizes of land holdings become unsustainable. On SNL where farming is undertaken with limited capital and technological inputs, the decrease in land size leads to intensive land utilisation and a reduced fallow period. This continues until the soil becomes unproductive. Consequently, population growth and distribution culminate in land degradation and desertification.

2.4.4 Human activities

Several human activities cause land degradation. The degradation of land is attributed to unsustainable land management practices in agriculture, forestry, mining and construction. These activities result in either chemical, biological or physical degradation of the land due to loss of soil nutrients, organic matter, flora, fauna and the destruction of the soil structure. Accumulations of trace elements also contribute to land degradation. The degraded land cannot support vegetation growth and this leads to exposure of the soil to erosion agents such as wind and heavy rainfall.

Crop farming practices

A majority of rural Swazis are subsistence farmers, with comparatively small land holdings. There is low technological and capital input into farming yet the continuous cultivation of the soil restricts the regeneration of nutrients and structure. Incidents of inappropriate cropping and farming practices as well as poor soil / land management systems are prevalent. Likewise, problems of land degradation have been recorded among farming communities on TDL. Incidents of improper application of fertilisers, herbicides and insecticides have been documented in all farming systems in the country together with their adverse effects on the soil nutrient composition and structure.

Livestock farming practices

Swazis are traditionally and predominantly livestock farmers. Livestock grazing is inevitably the largest land use occupying about 67 percent of the country’s total surface area (SEAP vol. 1 :33). Emphasis is normally placed on the quantity of livestock one should raise and not necessarily on the quality of the beasts. This makes pastoral farming more of a social than an economic practice, particularly on SNL. Grazing on SNL is communal and indiscriminate without any control on livestock numbers that can be grazed on the pastures. In 1992 Swaziland, with a livestock population of 700 000, was already beyond the recommended carrying capacity for sustained yield yet her stocking rate of 2.6 hectares per livestock is among the highest in Africa (Osunade, 1994; SEAP, 1998). Consistent with the high stocking rates is overgrazing. As a result of overgrazing, grass in some communal grazing areas fails to grow leaving bare patches of unproductive soil. The destruction of vegetation cover is compounded by night kraaling and the movement of livestock to dipping tanks and watering points. This does not only destroy the grass cover, it also creates rills which facilitate surface run-off and erosion of soil material loosened by livestock trampling. Soil erosion and land degradation in Swaziland is most extensive in communal grazing areas, especially around dipping tanks and watering points. On TDL, the most prevalent problem is bush encroachment which is generally caused by low stocking densities.

Road construction

Improper siting of roads and storm drainage channels also promote land degradation. Roads and their drainage channels encourage surface run - off. If sited without in-depth slope and site analysis, this may prove catastrophic to the environment. Drainage channels of most rural roads are constructed solely to collect rain water from the roads with little concern on how the water will eventually be disposed. Serious gully erosion takes place on land portions along the roads.

Indiscriminate use of fire

There is a high incidence of uncontrolled use of fires in the country. Fire is sometimes used to facilitate pasture regeneration and also in clearing vegetation for farming and settlements. In most cases the fire is used at a wrong time. For instance, veld burning; which is common in rural communities, is done during the winter season when the grass and soil are very dry. The fire destroys not only the leaves but it penetrates the sub- soil and destroys the root structure of plants. When the rainy season comes the vegetation fails to grow thus denying the soil of the important protection against erosion agents. Failure of vegetation to grow signals the onset of desertification.

Deforestation and afforestation

Deforestation has to do with indiscriminate cutting of trees. Tree cutting incidents are common on SNL, particularly where land is being cleared for cultivation and settlements. This becomes a problem when accompanied by the utilisation of trees for fuelwood and building purposes. Afforestation may be as detrimental as deforestation especially if water - depleting tree species are planted. Eucalyptus trees and other types of trees with a high water demand deplete ground water if planted on a large scale and close to water sources. The vertical structure and chemical components of some of the trees used in afforestation programmes may also result in the destruction of the undergrowth which protects the soil from splash erosion. Detailed tree species/site analysis need to be undertaken in afforestation programmes to avoid the negative effects.

Poverty

Poverty stricken people tend to rely heavily on the exploitation of natural resources for their livelihood. As such they are the most vulnerable group to the exploitation of natural resources. This is exemplified by the intensive exploitation of indigenous trees for firewood for sale to individuals and butchery owners along the country's major roads. Moreover, a majority (75 - 90%) of rural Swazi households rely on wood for fuel. Depletion of indigenous forests for fuelwood, building, wood carving and furniture - making takes place within poverty stricken communities. Lasschuit (1994), estimates that total wood consumption in rural communities exceeds the total sustainable wood supply by 30 percent. This occurs in a situation where there is lack of management systems for indigenous forests.

2.5 Challenges to combating desertification

There are several challenges to be overcome in the implementation of initiatives to combat desertification. These challenges include the rapidly growing population, a declining economy and stagnating food production. Other challenges are unsustainable increases in livestock numbers within rapidly degrading communal grazing areas. Poverty is also a major socio - economic challenge to combating desertification. Persistent application of improper farming systems and land management practices as well as the limited capacity of communities to address desertification and land degradation problems is another challenge that may impede the success of initiatives to combat desertification.

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