The National Forest Policy, 2002

This is the draft Forest Policy and as such is a working document and not a formal policy document. It should not be interpreted as the policy of the Government of Swaziland or the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives until it has been finally agreed and adopted.

2.4 Natural forests and woodlands

Concerns with regard to the current status of forest and woodland resources in Swaziland revolve around management issues. The growing population is putting more pressure on the scarce indigenous forest resources and the use of forests by communities is apparently no longer sustainable. Plant resources are further diminished by uncontrolled commercial activities through sales and export. There is evidence that the forest resources of Swaziland are being depleted through export of specific forest products, notably medicinal plants, to neighbouring countries. As a result, many of the forests and woodlands have been degraded. It is essential to address the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation and to formulate strategies to protect and conserve the forest resources.

Key management issues are addressed in section 2.4.1, focusing on introducing sustainable management of the natural forest and woodlands. Section 2.4.2 identifies areas where commercial utilisation of forests can be improved, whereas section 2.4.3 highlights the valuation of non-timber forest products. Section 2.4.4 presents policy statements on energy matters, section 2.4.5 on cultural aspects, section 2.4.6 on promotion of tourism, and section 2.4.7 on conservation of biodiversity. Most sections contain important policy elements that focus on community involvement and management options for improving rural livelihood.

2.4.1 Key management aspects of natural forests and woodlands

Management of natural forests and woodlands remains the most important forestry issue in Swaziland that needs to be addressed now and in the future. This section highlights some of the key aspects of sustainable forest management.

2.4.1.1 Current management of the natural forests and woodlands

There is general agreement that the increasing degradation of the forest resources is caused by unsustainable exploitation of forest and woodlands, especially the communal resources, but to some extent also private and state managed land.

Issue

The natural forests and woodlands of Swaziland are not managed in a sustainable way.

The main causes are the lack of clear and comprehensive understanding of sustainable forest management, and the lack of the means to implement sustainable management.

Policy

Sustainable forest management systems must be fully developed and introduced to communities and all other stakeholders, based on agreed national criteria and indicators.

The national criteria and indicators - following the Dry Zone Africa Process - that have been defined and adopted by the Ministry responsible for forestry must be introduced to all stakeholders (see Appendix 3). Introducing community-based management is a key element in the process, whereby communities have to be made aware of alternative uses of forest resources. Communities have to organise themselves in Forest Management Committees, but need technical and financial support (see also sections 2.2.4 to 2.2.6). Hence there is a strong requirement for collaborative or joint management, in which the roles of Government and NGOs have to be defined, including measures to enhance co-operation.

2.4.1.2 Underlying causes of forest degradation

Identification and study of the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation is a world-wide priority and its understanding forms an essential precondition for the introduction of sustainable forest management. Underlying causes include the following:

Rapid population growth and pressure on land;
Poverty and lack of alternative sources of livelihood;
Inequities in land tenure, access and user rights;
Lack of influence of stakeholders, in particular women;
Substitution of forest and woodland by other systems of production and land use;
Over-exploitation of communal forests and rangelands;
Inappropriate and uncontrolled burning of forests and rangelands;
Lack of value assigned to forests and forest products;
Lack of recognition and use of traditional knowledge;
Lack of capacity to manage forests;
Illegal trade in forest products;
Breakdown of traditional leadership and land disputes;
Inappropriate government policies;
Poor enforcement of laws and regulations.

Issue

Although most of the underlying causes of deforestation are recognised, there is lack of application of suitable measures to address the issues.

There is no full and detailed understanding of the complex relationships between the underlying causes. Most of the causes refer to socio-economic conditions and attitudes, and they are related to one single major cause, namely the strong population growth, which takes place without corresponding increase of responsibility, adequate control, enforceable rules and regulations, and conservation of the forests and woodlands.

Policy

Remedial measures shall be developed and promoted to mitigate the underlying causes of forest degradation, which requires further identification and study, including analysis of the impact on the status of the forest resources.

The full understanding of the underlying causes and their effects is a critical element in the process of introducing sustainable forest management.

2.4.1.3 Management of forest fires

The use of fire in Swaziland is recognised as an efficient tool in the management of natural forests and rangelands. Most of the burning that takes place in the natural woodlands intends to improve grazing conditions. However, there is evidence that uncontrolled and random fires result in destruction of natural forest resources and loss of biodiversity. There is no full understanding of the effects of the fire regimes occurring in Swaziland. Fires tend to favour certain species to the detriment of others and reduce overall diversity. Uncontrolled fires caused by strained social relations between forest companies and neighbouring communities also affect industrial forestry (see section 2.1.1.3).

Issue

There is an overall lack of control of fire in natural forests, woodlands and rangelands.

The lack of control is excarbated by insufficient understanding of the effects of fire on forest and veld conditions. Uncontrolled and unwanted fires that have started in one particular type of land may affect other neighbouring land. There are currently no regulations to compel neighbouring land users and landowners, whether on communal or private land, to jointly fight uncontrolled forest and veld fires.

Policy

Sustainable fire management practices for the different land uses in Swaziland must be developed, implemented and promoted based on national and external research information, including the prevention and fighting of unwanted fires.

Educational programmes, revision of the current Grass Fires Act of 1955, establishment of a National Fire Prevention Body and development of a national fire statistics database should be part of the strategy to achieve an effective management and control system of forest and veld fires.

Local Fire Prevention Units should be established in all Chiefdoms and on all private farms. Such bodies should develop fire prevention and fire fighting strategies, in close co-operation with neighbouring land users and the traditional and national authorities. These units should form part of the community Forest Management Committees (see section 2.2.5) and operate as one body to administer, manage, monitor, and co-ordinate all forest and forest fire matters.

2.4.1.4 Valuation and natural resource accounting of forest and woodland resources

Natural resources in general are currently considered to be of very little value by most people, and only worth the value of products extracted.

Issue

The general lack of awareness of the actual value of natural resources is one of the major causes of inadequate management and resulting degradation of the forest and woodland resources.

Policy

Natural resource accounting (NRA) in forestry and promotion of proper valuation of forest resources will be further developed and applied in order to establish the true value of forests.

The recently introduced natural resource accounting (NRA) in Swaziland is an important tool for determining the value of the forest resource and improving its competitive position with respect to other land uses. Together with Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and resource rent introduction, NRA should be part of the routine planning exercise to protect forests from unwanted land conversion (see also sections 2.1.5.2 and 2.4.7.3). Multiple use of forests and woodlands such as for conservation and tourism will add value and sustain management, especially with communities involved (see also sections 2.4.3 and 2.4.6).

2.4.2 Commercial management aspects of natural forests and woodlands

Apart from the sustainable aspect of the management of the natural forests and woodlands (see previous section 2.4.1), there is also the commercial aspect. Commercial management of natural woodlands and forests for tourism, conservation and other purposes has traditionally been left to the private organisations and parastatals, such as the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC) and the Big Game Parks. However, in many parts of the country, the forests and natural beauty of the landscape have not yet been commercially exploited.

Forest and woodland resources can be used in a more commercial approach of exploitation, however on a sustainable basis, such as:

Trade in timber forest products;
Trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) with proper valuation;
Small processing industries on the basis of forest products;
Tourism in general;
Eco-tourism and management of protected areas.

All these areas of forest utilisation need to be investigated with respect to markets and sustainability. It may be that certain areas of exploitation are not to be recommended.

2.4.2.1 Improving commercial use and management of communal forest resources

At the present moment there is little commercial use of communal forest resources

Issue

Opportunities to improve rural community livelihood by commercial and sustainable exploitation of forest resources are not sufficiently explored or made available.

Traditional leaders manage communal areas and anyone wishing to harvest products from the communal forest requires their permission. Access to forest resources is one of the forest policy principles (see sections 1.4 and 2.2.5.2). The present situation is that often no charge is levied on persons from outside the chiefdom.

Policy

Traditional leaders and community members should explore the options for improving commercial and sustainable exploitation of the communal forest resources in order to improve their livelihoods.

The main options are in the trade of forest products (section 2.4.3) and tourism (section 2.4.6).

2.4.2.2 Trade in forest products with proper valuation

There is concern that an increasing proportion of the revenue and benefits from harvested forest products is taken away by outside traders, at the expense of the benefits to the communities in control of the forest resources.

Issue

Current trade in natural forest products is uncontrolled and not sufficiently benefiting communities.

Policy

Communities must retain the control over their forest resources and take measures to remain the principal recipients of the revenue and benefits obtained from forest products.

In order to ensure sustainable commercial activities within natural forests and woodlands a permit system should be introduced, controlled by the community Forest Management Committees. Communities need to be advised by the Ministry responsible for forestry and other relevant organisations with regard to proper valuation, marketing and management of their forest products.

2.4.2.3 Small processing industries based on forest products

At present there is inadequate promotion and support to develop community-based industries.

Issue

Communities are not making efficient and economic use of forest products by setting up small processing industries.

Policy

The development of small sustainable industries specialising in the processing of natural forest and woodland products shall be encouraged and supported.

Communities need to be advised on the options for small industries and the possibilities of financial and technical assistance. The main advantages of creating such industries, e.g. bee keeping, food collection and wood carving (see also section 2.4.3), are increased employment through additional labour inputs and raised revenue through value added to the forest product.

2.4.2.4 Community involvement in the management of protected areas

Community involvement in the sustainable management of protected land is considered vital.

Issue

At the present moment there is little community involvement in the management of conserved and protected land.

This relates not only to communal conservation areas, but also to involvement in national and other conservation areas, such as managed by the Swaziland National Trust Commission, Big Game Parks and private companies.

Policy

Community involvement in the establishment and management of protected areas for eco-tourism development or other purposes shall be encouraged and promoted.

Such involvement would include collaborative management or co-management of forests and woodlands inside and outside protected areas, and should result in improved management and revenue generation for the community (see also section 2.4.7.8).

2.4.3 Valuation and use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)

The undervaluing of forest products is a major contributor to over-exploitation of forests and woodlands. The most important 'free' non-timber forest product that is traded with impunity (and hence no taxes or other revenue to Government or the land user) is that of medicinal plants (see section 2.4.3.3). Fuelwood (see section 2.4.4) and woodcraft (see section 2.4.3.4) form other important categories. Other NTFPs include a wide variety of edible animal and plant products, bark and other tree products, grasses, reeds, etc., which are consumed by a large majority of the population.

2.4.3.1 The value of non-timber forest products

At the present moment communities and other stakeholders are not fully aware and informed of the value of many NTFPs.

Issue

The value of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is not fully recognised and established in the national accounts of Swaziland.

Policy

The true value and importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to the national economy must be established and recognised in national planning and accounting.

Research on valuation has been initiated and needs to be continued in a comprehensive way as part of national resource accounting. The communities and general public need to be informed about revised values of NTFPs.

2.4.3.2 Research into utilisation of non-timber forest products

The current knowledge of the variety and scope of NTFPs in Swaziland is not sufficient for multiple use application, in particular in small community industries (see section 2.4.2.3).

Issue

The present species utilisation database of non-timber forest products is incomplete.

Policy

A comprehensive species utilisation database of non-timber forest products needs to be created, in conjunction with research into the wider occurrence and potential of NTFPs in Swaziland.

In particular the area of medicinal plants needs to be investigated, with a focus on sustainable management status and commercialisation (see next section 2.4.3.3).

2.4.3.3 Medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are the most important group of non-timber forest products, in both the economic and social perspective. Based on the results from ethno-botanical surveys, Swaziland has a satisfactory documentation of the indigenous traditional medicinal flora, which is also very relevant to preservation of the natural heritage (see also section 2.4.5).

Issue

The uncontrolled and unsustainable extraction of medicinal plants currently taking place in forests and woodlands has resulted in depletion or critical levels of certain species.

The current situation - which also applies to culturally important plants (see section 2.4.5) - is largely attributed to illegal trade and export of plants and is related to the general lack of proper value assigned to forest products (see section 2.4.1.4).

Policy

Medicinal plants must be protected by effective measures, to ensure that extraction and use will be sustainable and primarily aimed at satisfying local needs.

Trade and export of medicinal plants from natural forests should be strictly controlled. Restrictions should be applied depending on the relative scarcity of the species and the viability of the population. Trade in endangered species should be prohibited. Harvesting from communal land should only take place by registered traditional healers and other authorised persons, through a licensing system obtained from the local authorities through the communal Forestry Management Committees. However, limited harvesting for personal and household use should be exempted. A corresponding permit system should be set up for private land. Growing of medicinal plants in gardens and nurseries should be promoted to alleviate the pressure on natural forests.

2.4.3.4 Indigenous tree species used for woodcraft

A variety of indigenous plant species, such as Tamboti (Spirostachys africana) and Kiaat (Pterocarpus angolensis), is used for the production of woodcrafts as carvings, furniture, bowls and other utensils, both for domestic purposes and the tourist market.

Issue

Currently there is an uncontrolled over-exploitation and commercialisation of indigenous plant and tree species for the woodcraft market.

Policy

An inventory of indigenous species used for woodcraft should be compiled, and a re-planting programme of identified natural plant and tree species should be developed.

To alleviate pressure on natural forests and woodlands, enrichment planting of selected species should be encouraged (see also sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.4). Also, the use of alternative exotic plant and tree species, e.g. Jacaranda, to make woodcrafts should be promoted. An identification, propagation, seedling production and distribution programme of alternative wood species needs to be established, including a marketing system.

2.4.4 The role of natural forests in the production of fuelwood and provision of energy

Forests and woodlands play an essential role as a source of energy. About 70 percent of rural households in Swaziland rely on fuelwood, and it is expected that this percentage will remain high for some time. Although estimates of fuelwood consumption are not consistent, there are indications that local shortages exist, notably in the Upper Middleveld and parts of the Lower Middleveld and Lowveld, in particular around dense settlements and arable areas. Also in urban areas fuelwood is still an important source of energy, mainly derived from rural areas. In general, the situation warrants a better control and management of the fuelwood resources.

Natural forests and woodlands are not the only sources of fuelwood. An important part of the current fuelwood supply is harvested from private and communal wattle forests, however not always in a sustainable way (see section 2.2.2). Modest amounts are presently obtained from industrial plantation forests, but this supply has the potential to increase in the future (see section 2.1.2.3). Fuelwood from trees and forests within the urban and peri-urban environment also form an important source of energy, and this urban forestry function should be further stimulated (see section 2.3.1.1). Communal woodlots, which mainly consist of Eucalyptus species, contribute only minor amounts of fuelwood. In order to reduce the dependency on fuelwood, other sources of affordable energy need to be promoted. Such issues are addressed by the draft National Energy Policy Options Paper (1.5.2.7).

2.4.4.1 Estimate of the need for fuelwood

The need for fuelwood depends on two factors, namely the demand and the supply.

Issue

There is general shortage of fuelwood, although estimates of fuelwood consumption are not consistent and vary widely.

Also, estimates of annual wood volume increments appear not to be sufficiently accurate to determine a surplus or deficit of potential fuelwood supply.

Policy

Measures must be taken to ensure sustainable supply of fuelwood to meet needs of communities, based on a reliable and quantified estimate of fuelwood consumption and annual wood volume increments.

There is a need for further research to calculate annual increments and both rural and urban fuelwood consumption rates more precisely, which requires adoption of a standard method. The Ministry responsible for forestry shall make a provisional identification of areas with a fuelwood deficit and assess the spatial distribution of such deficit areas. Areas identified should receive priority in the planning of afforestation.

2.4.4.2 Sustainable fuelwood production from natural forest resources

The main supply of fuelwood in the coming years will still have to come from the natural forests and woodlands, although the fuelwood policy aims at increasing the proportion of fuelwood from other sources (see the following section 2.4.4.3).

Issue

Introduction of a sustainable national fuelwood production is complicated by substantial differences in the extent and impact of wood extraction that exist between different regions and locations in Swaziland.

The excessive extraction of fuelwood in areas with a shortage has led to locally degraded natural forests and woodlands.

Policy

Sustainable management strategies for fuelwood extraction from natural forests and woodlands must be based on assessment of extraction and regeneration in specific regional and local situations.

The diverse national situation with respect to biomass and wood production needs to be assessed in terms of options for production and distribution. This information should be compared and linked with the analysis of surplus and deficit areas (section 2.4.4.1).

2.4.4.3 The balance between fuelwood from natural and other sources

The irregularly distributed sources of fuelwood in the country have led to situations where one place has an insufficient and unsustainable extraction of fuelwood from scarce natural resources, and another a surplus from ample sources of fuelwood.

Issue

There is an imbalance between sources of fuelwood in Swaziland, enhancing local shortage or surplus.

Policy

Trade in fuelwood and charcoal from indigenous species must be regulated and production of fuelwood from other sources must be developed and stimulated.

Other sources of wood or energy have to relieve pressure from natural forests and woodlands. Several of the other fuelwood options have a crucial role to play at medium-term planning, before effects of long-term planning towards alternative energy sources are expected to make a real impact. Other sources of fuelwood and ways to increase supply and energy efficiency include the following:

Increased and improved distribution systems of wood waste from commercial plantations;
More efficient use and management of wattle forests;
Enrichment planting of selected fast growing natural tree species;
Buffer-zone planting of suitable exotic species to protect natural forest and woodland;
Establishment of multi-purpose woodlots;
Increased individual tree growing and agro-forestry;
Agricultural residues, industrial wood waste and bagasse from the sugar industry;
Charcoal in specific locations, as Highveld wattle forests and bush encroached farms;
Increasing energy efficiency through improved wood stoves;
Programmes to rehabilitate bush encroachment;
Eradication programmes of harmful alien invaders, including wattle in sensitive habitats such as watercourses.

These alternative sources of fuelwood do not all have the same potential and need to be evaluated. Fuel efficiency and alternative sources of energy are promoted by the draft National Energy Policy Options Paper (1.5.2.7). Distribution and transport are important factors that have to be taken into account, including opportunities for local entrepreneurs.

2.4.5 Cultural importance of forest resources

Many indigenous plants and trees are of great cultural importance at all levels of the Swazi society, including the Royal household, and form part of the natural heritage. Some plants and trees are sacred and spiritual revered by all members of the community. Various indigenous plant and tree species are used for medicine, the building of homesteads, cattle kraals, Chief’s and Royal kraals, the making of warrior and ceremonial sticks, etc. Some of these plants and attributes are used in traditional and customary ceremonies such as the Incwala and the reed dance.

2.4.5.1 Supply of trees and plant materials essential for cultural purposes

Culturally important plants and plant materials are used at certain times of the year for the different annual festivities and ceremonies, when regiments and Chiefdoms are commissioned to cut and deliver plant materials that are required. Certain plant species are now threatened or have become extinct.

Issue

There is an increasing depletion of certain tree and plant species that are indispensable in the Swazi culture and tradition.

Unsustainable use of the indigenous forest resources is the main cause of depletion of trees and plants for cultural activities and ceremonies. Certain tree species are overexploited without being replaced through a re-planting programme.

Policy

Sustainable utilisation and rehabilitation practices must be introduced to ensure the availability of all culturally important tree and plant species for ceremonial, domestic and other uses important to maintaining the Swazi tradition.

All culturally important plant and tree species should be inventoried and documented, and the information stored in databases. Documentation is already available with respect to the indigenous traditional medicinal flora (see section 2.4.3.3). A propagation and re-planting programme should be initiated and implemented by the Ministry responsible for forestry, with emphasis on enrichment planting. Community-based Forest Management Committees should be involved in programmes to protect culturally important trees and plants, in consultation with the traditional structures. The conservation of such plant species may also be enhanced in forest and flora reserves, protected special habitats and botanical gardens (see also section 2.4.7).

2.4.5.2 Spiritual needs and rights related to forest resources

Spiritual needs and rights, together with indigenous knowledge systems (see section 2.4.7.2), form an essential part of the natural heritage.

Issue

The recognition of the spiritual needs and rights of local people, in particular traditional medical practitioners, is unsatisfactory.

Policy

The spiritual rights and needs of the traditional medical practitioners and other people must be respected and protected.

Sustainable management of the forest resources is needed to meet the spiritual needs for the present and future generations (see also sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.3.3).

2.4.6 Forestry and tourism

Forests and woodlands are integral parts of the environment and overall physical landscape of Swaziland and its attractiveness to tourism. The contribution of forestry is essential to sustainable management of the natural resource base including wildlife and cultural heritage and hence to promotion of tourism in general, and eco-tourism in particular.

2.4.6.1 The value of natural forests and woodlands for forestry and tourism

Prominent and visible pollution, waste dumping and land degradation, which are occurring in the country, are not conducive to promoting tourism and eco-tourism.

Issue

As a result of forest degradation and lack of management, potentially attractive forest sites do currently not appeal to tourists.

One of the reasons of the degradation is the insufficient public awareness of the value of the natural forests and woodlands for tourism.

Policy

A coordinated approach must be established to promote sustainable management of natural forests and woodlands for enhanced tourism and eco-tourism development.

All stakeholders should be involved in coordinated planning and tourism development, including the private sector, government institutions, traditional authorities, communities and the Swaziland Tourism Authority (STA). The identification of protection-worthy areas and flora reserves for the dual purpose of tourism and conservation (see section 2.4.7.5) should be a priority planning issue.

2.4.6.2 Use of government controlled land for forestry and tourism

Government, in particular the Ministry responsible for agriculture, controls and manages large farms and ranches. Several of these farms are found in prime locations with attractive scenery, significant forest resources and biological diversity. Some of these farms have a substantial potential to support forestry and tourism development.

Issue

Many of the farms and ranches controlled by Government are presently under-utilised, in particular with respect to the value of their forest resources.

Government does not always have the capacity to manage these farms to their full potential.

Policy

Farms controlled by Government will be evaluated for forestry and tourism potential and further developed for such purposes, if considered suitable.

Strategically positioned government farms with forestry development potential and unique biodiversity could very well form part of Biodiversity and Tourism Corridors (BTCs).

2.4.7 Conservation of the biodiversity of natural forest resources

A general principle of conservation is that the ecological structure, function and dynamics of forests, including water, soil, and nutrient cycles, landforms, and micro-climate must be protected and maintained, or where degraded by past human activities, restored. The indigenous biological diversity of forests must be protected and maintained at all spatial scales and through all time frames.

The conservation status in the currently protected areas of Swaziland is generally satisfactory, although the invasion of alien plant species and poaching are considered major problems. Government has the overall responsibility for the conservation of the natural forest and woodlands, but adequate conservation and management can only be achieved with active participation of communities and other stakeholders.

2.4.7.1 Preservation of genetic forest plant resources

The preservation of genetic plant resources, notably forest plant resources, is an essential element in the conservation of the natural forest resources. The conservation relates to unmodified plant material. Genetically modified tree species normally only play a role in the industrial forestry sector (see section 2.1.1.2.2).

Issue

There is presently insufficient conservation of genetic plant resources in Swaziland.

Policy

The value of conservation of genetic plant resources must be fully recognised and holistic planning must be pursued to ensure their conservation as integral part of development programmes.

Important applications are found in the improvement of indigenous plant species. The conservation of the gene pool is the responsibility of the Swaziland National Herbarium, in collaboration with the National Tree Seed Centre, the National Plant Genetic Resources Centre and the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC). The documentation of genetic plant resources should take place through appropriate storage systems, indigenous flora inventory and preservation in protected areas and in botanical gardens.

2.4.7.2 Indigenous ecological knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems are considered an essential element in the management of natural resources. The role of forests with respect to spiritual needs also forms part of the indigenous ecological knowledge and the natural heritage (see section 2.4.5.2).

Issue

Indigenous ecological knowledge systems are currently undervalued and not satisfactorily applied in conservation and rehabilitation programmes.

There is also a concern with respect to copyright of indigenous knowledge systems.

Policy

The indigenous ecological knowledge of people in relation to forests must be recognised, respected, protected and applied as a critical element of defining ecologically responsible forest use.

Conservation programmes must have a holistic approach, with the full involvement of communities. For instance, indigenous ecological knowledge systems should be integrated in educational conservation programmes for communities. As a matter of principle, the copyright of published traditional knowledge systems must be recognised and protected. The Convention on Biological Diversity (1.7.2 ) clearly recognises the importance of intellectual property rights.

2.4.7.3 Threats to biodiversity

Major threats to biodiversity in Swaziland include encroachment of alien plants, the herbivory regime, the fire regime (see section 2.4.1.3), frequent drought and unsustainable exploitation of forests and woodlands (see section 2.4.1.1). Land conversion to agriculture, infrastructure and resettlement is also a threat to biodiversity (see also section 2.4.1.4).

2.4.7.3.1 Lack of knowledge and public awareness raising

Today, there is a wide recognition of the importance and value of biological diversity. But much more is needed to increase public awareness of the importance of biological diversity with the ultimate goal of stopping the ever-increasing loss.

Issue

Available information and public awareness of existing threats to biodiversity in Swaziland are insufficient.

Policy

The knowledge base of threats to biodiversity must be expanded and public awareness has to be raised about these threats.

Further studies are required to increase the information of threats to biodiversity and awareness programmes need to be developed to inform the general public. Reference in this context is made to the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (see section 1.5.1.5).

2.4.7.3.2 Development of programmes to address threats to biodiversity

There is a need to implement programmes to address the major issues, such as to control invasive alien species (see next section 2.4.7.3.3), to control exploitation of certain endangered species, to control veld fires and to reduce overstocking and overgrazing.

Issue

Current programmes to address the threats to biodiversity are insufficient.

Policy

Programmes to control and eliminate threats to biodiversity must be pursued and prioritised.

Such programmes need to be developed in conjunction with the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (see section 1.5.1.5). Essential in this context is also that Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Natural Resource Accounting (NRA) be fully introduced to alleviate the threat to biodiversity loss through land conversion.

2.4.7.3.3 Control of invasive alien plant species

Invasive alien species are considered to be the most important threat to biological diversity loss after habitat destruction. All ecosystems, including forests and grasslands, are vulnerable to invasive alien species.

Harmful alien plant species frequently recorded in Swaziland include Lantana camara, Sesbania punicea, Solanum mauritianum (bugweed), Caesalpinea decapetala (Mauritian thorn), Pathenium hystorophorus, Chromoleana odorata (triffid weed), Rubus spp, Cassia spp, Opuntia imbricata (prickly pear), Psidium guajava (guava). Other imported tree genus, such as Acacia, Eucalyptus, Pinus and others may also be invasive, unless properly managed in plantations.

Issue

There are currently no comprehensive programmes to address the issue of invasive alien plant species in Swaziland.

There is a huge body of information available, notably in South Africa and elsewhere where control and eradication programmes have started, using a variety of methods, including mechanical cleaning, the use of herbicides and biological control.

Policy

Integrated programmes to control invasive alien plant species shall be developed and implemented.

Development and execution of these programmes requires close co-operation of the Ministry responsible for forestry with the National Biodiversity Steering Committee (under the Swaziland Environment Authority), the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC) and liaison with Plant Protection and Research Institutes in South Africa. The Plant Control Act of 1981 needs to be reviewed and enforced, in particular to prevent the importation of unwanted alien plant species.

2.4.7.4 Coverage and size of biodiversity conservation areas in Swaziland

About four percent of Swaziland can be classified as conservation areas, with tourism and biodiversity conservation as the primary objectives. The size of the protected areas is an important factor in conserving biodiversity. However, all of the individual conservation areas of Swaziland are relatively small, namely less than 20 000 ha.

Issue

The conservation areas in Swaziland are too small and do not adequately cover all of the important habitats to avoid future unwanted changes and fully maintain biodiversity.

Not all of the important habitats are included in protected zones. In view of international protocols, which recommends ten percent of each vegetation type to be protected, Swaziland should carefully select an additional six percent of representative conservation areas, above the present four percent. Enlargement of conservation areas is expected to have a positive impact on tourism development (see section 2.4.6).

Policy

The coverage and size of protected areas in Swaziland must be enlarged in order to satisfactorily conserve and maintain biodiversity and important habitats for present and future generations.

Scale enlargement of conservation areas is considered essential to compete in the regional eco-tourism market. Advantage has to be taken from existing national and regional initiatives to consolidate and enlarge conservation areas. The development and implementation of plans for optimal placement, establishment and management of representative conservation areas in Swaziland should be given high priority and adequate support (see next section 2.4.7.5). The main management categories identified and proposed as being of relevance to Swaziland are Community Managed Protected Areas, National Forest Reserves, National Flora Reserves and National Parks.

2.4.7.5 Identification and selection of flora protection areas

The identification of flora protection areas as part of the overall protection-worthy areas (PWAs) is an essential step to enhance and consolidate the comprehensive conservation of the biodiversity of the forest and other natural resources of Swaziland. PWAs have already been assessed during the 1970s, and have recently been re-evaluated. The focus of conservation has changed over these years from a general ecosystem approach towards biodiversity conservation and eco-tourism development (see section 2.4.6).

Issue

There is a need for a comprehensive identification and selection of protection-worthy areas (PWAs), including forest and flora reserves.

The 2001 Flora Protection Act provides guidelines. A selection procedure based on a scientifically founded methodology is currently not available in Swaziland.

Policy

Additional forest and flora protection areas as part of overall of protection-worthy areas (PWAs) must be defined, proclaimed and properly managed.

Identification and selection of flora and other protection-worthy areas (PWAs) must be carried out on the basis of a suitable and scientifically founded methodology, with special emphasis on the definition of the criteria for determining the priority for conservation, and taking into account current capability available in Swaziland. Attention should particularly be given to habitats currently underrepresented as protection areas, such as wetlands and hill and mountain forests and woodlands (see next sections 2.4.7.6 and 2.4.7.7)

Vegetation classification systems used in identification of PWAs need to be reviewed and refined, taking into account the existing Agro-ecological Zoning of Swaziland as well as vegetation classification and mapping previously applied. Detailed biodiversity surveys - with a focus on species richness and endemism – and socio-economic surveys should be conducted as part of the selection method within all the potential new PWAs.

2.4.7.6 Protection of wetlands

Natural wetlands in Swaziland are found as integral part of various ecosystems consisting of plantation forest, natural forest and woodland, cultivated and grazing land, as well as residential and urban areas. Wetlands are a natural resource that is often neglected or given low value or no value at all. As a result of this inadequate recognition, wetlands remain largely unprotected and threatened. Many of the small wetlands, which include swampy and marshy areas, have been degraded or have been converted to farmland and areas of settlement. The Natural Resources Act of 1951 and the Control of Tree Planting Act of 1972 provide to some extent legal protection of wetlands. Regulations emanating from these Acts relate to protection of river and stream bank vegetation in a 30m wide strip along streams. The majority of the wetlands in Swaziland however, in particular the smaller ones, are not protected and are only inadequately conserved.

The 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, of which Swaziland is not a signatory, defines wetlands as areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt. It recognizes wetlands as having a fundamental ecological function as regulators of water regimes and as habitats supporting a characteristic flora and fauna, as well as constituting a resource of great economic, cultural, scientific and recreational value, the loss of which would be irreparable. The Ramsar Convention calls for concerted national efforts to prevent and control the encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future through proper protection and adequate conservation measures.

Issue

There is concern that the wetland areas of Swaziland are not adequately protected and conserved, and hence have lost their beneficial value.

Many wetlands have been fragmented, degraded and encroached by other land uses.

Policy

The wetlands of Swaziland shall be protected, conserved and managed to provide socio-economic, cultural, scientific, recreational and environmental benefits to the society.

Government should formulate strategies to protect, conserve and manage wetlands in support of sustainable development. Wetlands in Swaziland have to be identified, surveyed and mapped so that their present status is known and their future potential and use can be evaluated. The Swaziland Environment Authority, as the coordinating institution for environmental issues, should play a leading role in ensuring that wetlands are protected and conserved, following the guidelines as provided by the Ramsar Convention. The Ministry responsible for forestry should provide technical support for the protection and conservation of the wetland resources, in collaboration with other relevant government institutions, parastatals, NGOs and the private sector.

2.4.7.7 Protection and conservation of hill and mountain forests and woodlands

There is currently no adequate protection of the various hill and mountain forests and woodlands in Swaziland. The fragile hill and mountain ecosystems contain unique habitats with specific grassland, woodland and forest flora and fauna, including valuable riparian and riverine environments. However, most of the vegetation on steep hill and mountain slopes is found in a degraded form, caused by excessive grazing. Only minor mountain areas are protected as wildlife sanctuaries and reserves. The degradation and erosion is mainly due to overstocking and excessive cattle traffic to dip-tanks, watering points and night kraals.

Issue

There is concern that the hill and mountain forests and woodlands, including grasslands and unique riparian and riverine flora, are not adequately protected and conserved.

A large proportion of the hill and mountain vegetation in Swaziland is found in a serious state of degradation and erosion.

Policy

Natural hill and mountain forests and woodlands, including riparian, riverine and grassland vegetation, shall be protected, conserved and properly managed.

The prevalent land use of livestock grazing on hills and mountains should be reviewed. Government should design a new strategy to improve the livestock management system in hills and mountains in order to minimize the impact of grazing in these ecosystems. The Ministry responsible for forestry and flora should take the leading role in ensuring that forests and woodlands on hills and mountains are protected and managed in a sustainable way. Appropriate in-situ conservation, enrichment planting and afforestation practices should be pursued where necessary, based on careful selection of suitable areas for such improvements and taking into account other land uses. Adequate collaboration and coordination is required between relevant government institutions, parastatals, NGOs and the private sector.

2.4.7.8 Management of future protection areas

Appropriate management of future protected forest and flora reserves, including wetlands and hill and mountain forests (see sections 2.4.7.6 and 2.4.7.7), as part of overall biodiversity conservation areas is an essential element in the enlargement of protected area in Swaziland.

Issue

There is concern that the present conservation management capacity in Swaziland is not sufficient to manage additional protected forest and flora reserves in the near future.

Policy

The current conservation management capacity and capability with respect to forest and flora reserves must be assessed and evaluated, taking into account alternative management and operation options to enlarge the scope of conservation.

Following present mandates, the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC) has the responsibility to manage National Parks. The Ministry responsible for forestry should manage the proposed National Forest and Flora Reserves (see section 2.4.7.4). In the planning for innovative management systems, emphasis should be given to the development of Community-managed Protected Areas. Such areas should be managed by community-based organisations (CBOs) in co-operation with relevant government institutions, parastatals and NGOs.

This page was last updated on 25 November 2004