The Forest Policy White Paper, 2001This is a Forest Policy White Paper and as such is a working document and not a formal policy document. It should not be interpreted as the policy of the Government of Swaziland or the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives until it has been finally agreed and adopted. A National Forest Policy will be an outcome of this draft document. October 2001 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 - Introduction 1 INTRODUCTION1.1 Justification for the National Forest Policy 1.2 Forest policy vision 1.3 Forest policy objectives 1.4 Forest policy principles 1.5 National policy context 1.5.1 National policies and strategies 1.5.1.1 The National Development Strategy (NDS), 1999 1.5.1.2 The draft National Land Policy (NLP), 2000 1.5.1.3 The draft National Environment Policy (NEP), 1999 1.5.1.4 The Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP), 1997 1.5.1.5 The draft National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP), 2001 1.5.1.6 The National Physical Development Plan (NPDP), 1996 1.5.1.7 The draft National Population Policy Framework for Swaziland, 2000 1.5.2 Sectoral policies and strategies 1.5.2.1 The Urban Government Policy, 1996 1.5.2.2 The draft Peri-urban Growth Policy, 1997 1.5.2.3 The draft Tourism Policy, 2000 1.5.2.4 The draft Resettlement Policy, 2001 1.5.2.5 The Livestock Development Policy, 1995 1.5.2.6 The draft National Water Policy, 2000 and Bill, 2001 1.5.2.7 The draft National Energy Policy, 2001 1.5.2.8 The draft Rural Electrification Policy, 2001 1.5.2.9 The National Action Program of the Convention to Combat Desertification (NAP), 1998 1.5.2.10 National Initiatives of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1996 1.6 Existing Legislation 1.6.1 Institutional Acts 1.6.1.1 The Natural Resources Act 71/1951 1.6.1.2 The Swaziland Environment Authority Act 15/1992 1.6.1.3 The Swazi Administration Order 6/1998 1.6.2 Flora Protection and Management Acts 1.6.2.1 The Flora Protection Act 5/2001 1.6.2.2 The Control of Tree Planting Act 7/1972 1.7 International linkages 1.7.1 International initiatives and forest principles 1.7.2 International conventions 1.7.3 The Forest Protocol of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) 1.7.4 International trade agreements Chapter 2 - Issues and Policy Statements 2 ISSUES AND POLICY STATEMENTS Chapter 3 - Institutional, Legal and Planning Arrangements 3 INSTITUTIONAL, LEGAL AND PLANNING ARRANGEMENTS Appendices APPENDIX 1 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING LEGISLATION RELEVANT TO FORESTRY APPENDIX 2 FORESTRY-RELATED INTERNATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND CONVENTIONS APPENDIX 4 FOREST RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND DATA SYSTEMS APPENDIX 5 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, EDUCATION AND RESEARCH The Government of the Kingdom of Swaziland has embarked on a number of initiatives and planning frameworks in pursuit of sustainable development of her people. Among these national initiatives are the Constitutional Review Commission established by His Majesty the King in 1996 to review and update the country's constitution through a participatory process with all members of the society. The report of the Constitutional Review Commission has been presented in August 2001, with recommendations for strengthening of the environmental protection and preservation of the environment for the benefit of the nation. The National Development Strategy (NDS) is the long-term strategy and overall planning framework for the country. Departing from the NDS are short-term development strategies such as the Economic and Social Reform Agenda (ESRA) and inter-sectoral policies and legislative frameworks that guide and regulate the country's development process. The Government of the Kingdom of Swaziland has targeted as one of its goals the attainment of sustainable economic development through sound environment management policies and appropriate legislation. This is to be achieved through sustainable use of land and by equitable access to land and other natural resources with shared benefits. Agricultural and industrial development are the cornerstones of national development. Food security, sustainable livelihoods, creation of employment opportunities, income generation and poverty alleviation are key policy elements that must be adequately addressed as essential issues in the national development process. In this regard, natural resources necessary for meeting basic human life such as land, water, soil, trees and forest, wildlife and fisheries must be used rationally to secure sustained quality of life and development of our people. The Government of the Kingdom of Swaziland is developing and implementing policies and legislation relating to the agricultural and environment sectors. Notable among these are the National Land Policy, the National Environment Policy, the Livestock Development Policy, the National Water Policy, the National Resettlement Policy and the National Forest Policy. The National Forest Policy intends to achieve sustainable forest management and sustainable development of all types of forests. It is the wish of Government that all stakeholders and other interested parties including traditional authorities and communities will work together in furtherance of the achievement of the forest policy objectives and goals. The forest policy elements will be translated into forest legislation and a national forestry action programme, which will define the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders, including Government, the private sector, communities, non-governmental organisations and other interested groups. It is my hope that the forest policy elements enshrined in this document will adequately address the issues and concerns of stakeholders. I wish to express my appreciation and gratitude on behalf of my ministry and the Swaziland Government to all stakeholders who tirelessly contributed to the preparation and production of the National Forest Policy. MP ROY D.N. FANOURAKIS The need for a national forest policy for Swaziland is two fold, firstly because of the absence of an integrated and comprehensive forest policy and legislative framework to regulate forestry development and secondly because of the problems of deforestation and environment degradation as faced by the country. Forest resources are being heavily exploited and commercialised to meet the needs of society and sustain livelihoods of rural communities and households. Harvesting of natural forests and woodlands for construction timber, poles, firewood, woodcrafts and medicinal plants has reached alarming proportions. Wattle harvesting for pulpwood export, charcoal, poles, tanbark and fuelwood has become problematic. Forest fires have increasingly devastated forests and other natural resources causing severe strain on the forest resource base. These and other problems have resulted in depletion of natural plant and animal resources of socio-economic and cultural importance. Land degradation and soil erosion have become commonly occurring phenomena and shortages of fuelwood and timber resources are on the increase. The existing pressures are exacerbated by the need for economic development, which occurs at the expense of the conservation of the environment and the ecological balance. Economic development includes conversion of national forest and woodland by commercial agriculture, human settlement, road construction, urban and industrial development, which all contributes to deforestation and the overall degradation of forests and other natural resources. National development has to be co-ordinated in order to minimise the conflict of interests and the resultant adverse effects on the natural resource base. National resources, of which trees and forests are part of, are fundamental and essential elements for meeting basic human life, while at the same time useful in supporting productive functions of national development. It is hoped that the guiding principles and instruments enshrined in the National Forest Policy will help in solving the socio-economic and environmental problems listed above through the application and achievement of sustainable management and development of the national forest resources. 1 INTRODUCTION1.1 Justification for the National Forest PolicyThe justification for the National Forest Policy is the general recognition of the importance and value of forestry and the utilisation of forest and woodland resources in Swaziland. Swaziland has a large and successful industrial forestry sector, but faces serious problems of deforestation and degradation of her indigenous forests and woodlands. The forest inventory of 1999 indicates that Swaziland has 45 percent coverage of forests and woodlands, of which natural forests cover 2.2 percent, natural woodlands 22.0 percent, natural bushlands 13.4 percent, wattle forests 1.4 percent and plantation forests 6.4 percent. Forestry is not the only land use of these forests and woodlands. Other land utilisation includes extraction of a variety of forest products, grazing, agro-forestry, nature protection and tourism. Climatic conditions in Swaziland, with high rainfall and warm temperatures, are very suitable for commercial growing of a specific variety of trees, particularly in the Highveld. The first trees for commercial production were planted in 1949, and areas under forest have since steadily extended. The plantation forest category is the large-scale commercial sector based on pine and eucalyptus production with a high level of management. Wattle forestry started mainly as a small-scale commercial activity, however management and distribution of most wattle forests have deteriorated over the past years, which has resulted in uncontrolled wattle growth and spreading. The commercial forestry and related processing industry forms a very important part of the economy of Swaziland, contributing approximately 15 percent to GDP, mainly through exports. The forestry sector, including the secondary processing sector, provides employment to approximately 8 000 people, which is 8 percent of total formal employment in Swaziland. Commercial forestry in Swaziland is entirely run by private companies, of which Sappi-Usutu, Mondi Forest and Shiselweni Forestry Company are the largest. These three companies, together with some smaller ones, manage a total area of about 130 000 ha covered by forest plantations. Of this total area, about 25 000 ha (twenty percent) is unplanted and used for infrastructure and for the protection of biodiversity and ecosystems. Main species are pine (predominantly Pinus patula, but also P. radiata and P. taeda) and eucalyptus (mainly Eucalyptus salinga and E. grandis), covering about 80 and 20 percent respectively of the planted area. The productivity is relatively high, about 15-20 cubic metres/ha per annum for pine. Overall annual yield is approximately 1.2 million cubic metres of wood with a total value of about E650 million, which is largely exported as pulp, logs and timber. The current deforestation and degradation of the natural forest and woodland areas are caused by a combination of factors such as conversion of land to agriculture, uncontrolled extraction of forest products from communal land and large livestock populations. Forest degradation is further compounded by a number of underlying socio-economic conditions, including increasing population pressure, that counteract rational utilisation of forest and woodlands. The importance of the indigenous forest and woodlands in Swaziland is not fully recognised, and little is documented about the present utilisation and potential value, e.g. for cultural and medicinal purposes. The national forest authorities have inadequate capacity and budgets to analyse, plan and manage the forest resources. Consequently, the broadly formulated national forest policies that exist have not been transformed into action plans, and similarly the forest legislation, which is considered fragmented and insufficient to enforce national policies, has not been revised for a long time. Developing effective forest policies and strategies to promote sustainable and integrated development involves an array of difficult choices. For example, it is known that forest clearing for crops - notably sugarcane - and pasture, unsustainable cutting for fuelwood, uncontrolled commercial logging for timber and expanding infrastructure development all contribute to forest degradation. However, the fundamental problem faced by policy-makers is how to address the associated problems. These include poverty, hunger, access to land, lack of jobs and income-generating opportunities as well as growing economic demands for forest goods and services. The role and importance of forests and forestry has evolved tremendously over the past two decades, and is expected to expand its functions even more in the future. Traditionally, forestry has largely focused on industrial production, but today its impact on social and environmental matters is fully recognised. The proper use and management of forest and woodland resources is essential to sustain the livelihoods of rural communities. Forestry today is an integral part of most land use systems, hence it must be considered in national planning as a priority in resource allocation. Cross-sectoral working relationships and integrated approaches in forest planning are key elements in today’s holistic development strategies. These development trends are also clearly occurring in Swaziland, and they consequently enhance the importance and relevance of forestry, such as in the following areas of interest:
1.2 Forest policy visionIn the past Government has tended to focus on industrial forest resources. However, since the adoption of the Principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests originating from the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the world view of what constitutes forestry has been dramatically widened. This is also reflected by the changed approach of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) towards forestry development as expressed by the objectives, guiding principles and forest management arrangements of the SADC Forest Protocol. All policies in Swaziland should be relevant to the Mission of the Government of the Kingdom of Swaziland. The current mission statement is "to provide a climate and infrastructure that will progressively maximise the quality and security of life of the people of Swaziland and make the best use of the country’s natural and human resources". The vision of the National Forest Policy should also be contributory to the vision of the National Development Strategy (NDS). The NDS vision is that "by the year 2022, the Kingdom of Swaziland will be in the top 10% of the medium human development group of countries founded on sustainable economic development, social justice and political stability". The draft National Land Policy (NLP) and the draft National Environmental Policy (NEP) are the links between the NDS and the National Forest Policy. The vision of the NLP is "to maximise benefits to the entire society from land on a sustainable basis". The main goal of the NEP is "to promote the enhancement, protection and conservation of the environment and the attainment of sustainable development in Swaziland". Taking the above statements into account, the guiding vision for the National Forest Policy is: 1.3 Forest policy objectivesThe multiple use of forests is an integral part of modern forest management as it provides for a wide range of uses and opportunities. The National Forest Policy has objectives that not only cover the industrial forest sector but also the development of community forestry and the sustainable management of natural forests and woodlands. The policy objectives of the National Forest Policy relate to objectives as defined for other national policies and strategies, in particular the National Development Strategy, the National Land Policy (draft), the National Environmental Policy (draft) and the National Biodiversity Strategy (draft).
The objectives will be pursued through the sustainable management of four strategic forestry areas, namely industrial forestry, community forestry, urban forestry and natural forest and woodland management (see chapter 2). These four areas incorporate important trans-sectoral areas of interest, including biodiversity protection, tourism development, energy consumption and watershed management. 1.4 forest policy principlesThe policy is based upon the following principles:
1.5 National policy contextOver recent years, the Government of Swaziland has been formulating policies and strategies at several levels, towards a more pro-active approach to the considerable opportunities and difficulties ahead. The long-term plan to 2022 is contained within the National Development Strategy (NDS). All other policies and strategies are to facilitate the vision of the NDS, and are to be co-ordinated by the Public Policy Co-ordination Unit. The National Forest Policy relates in particular to two other Policies, namely the National Land Policy (draft), and the National Environmental Policy (draft), both of which have a higher place in the hierarchy of National Policies. Both NLP and NEP are nested immediately under the NDS. The National Forest Policy occurs at the level under these two, at the same level of e.g. Agriculture, Biodiversity, Energy and Tourism. For that reason the National Forest Policy should be consistent with the broad policy framework set out in the higher level policies. The existing relevant policies and strategies are presented in two broad groupings, the first with a focus on national development and the second more related to sectoral development. 1.5.1 National policies and strategies1.5.1.1 The National Development Strategy (NDS), 1999The National Development Strategy, which was officially launched in August 1999, identifies environmental protection as a cornerstone in the national development process. The Strategy is laid out in seven main areas of development and eight categories for sectoral strategies to those areas, among which is Agriculture, Land and Rural Development, which includes Forestry. The main statements relevant to forestry are: Strengthen the afforestation and reforestation programmes with particular emphasis on addressing fuel deficit areas and degraded landscapes. Develop new commercial forestry plantations only in those Highveld areas with sufficient rainfall and low potential for other agricultural use, taking care not to disturb ecological and population balance. More extensive recommendations are made in the report of the Agriculture, Land and Rural Development Sector of NDS. The NDS also noted that a comprehensive National Land Policy should be formulated as a matter of urgency. 1.5.1.2 The draft National Land Policy (NLP), 2000The draft National Land Policy (NLP) translates the vision of the NDS into a land-related context. The NLP addresses nation-wide issues under six headings, namely Human Rights Issues and Policies, Cultural Issues and Policies, Land Tenure Issues and Policies, Land Use and Land Management Issues and Policies, Land Market Issues and Policies and Land Administration Issues and Policies. So for each issue addressed within these categories, there are policies to resolve the issue. Following the level of NLP, there is an intermediate level of rural, peri-urban and urban land policies, which are to focus more narrowly on these areas. Forestry is at the next policy level, which policies are to be strongly focused on their particular subjects, the broader issues having already been addressed by the broader policies. An initiative that has been linked with the draft NLP for public consultation purposes is a proposal to introduce 99-year leases on Swazi Nation Land (SNL). Although there are complex issues involved, the success of this proposal will result in stronger property rights, with concomitant increased potential for commercial ventures on SNL, including smallholder forestry. 1.5.1.3 The draft National Environment Policy (NEP), 1999Environmental protection is a central component in all of the eight sectors of the NDS and this is reflected by the principles identified in the National Environment Policy (NEP). Emerging from the SEAP (see section 1.5.1.4), the draft NEP 1999 and the Environment Management Bill 2001 (see section 1.6.1.2) are intended to be the national policy to protect and conserve the environment and to attain sustainable development in Swaziland. The most direct reference to forestry, which is an integral part of the environment affected by the policy, is the ‘user-pays’ principle, which is explained as follows. Many natural resources including land, indigenous forestry, and water are free or under-priced, which leads to over-use and degradation or depletion. The costs and benefits of resource use should be internalised through the use of clearly defined property rights, providing ‘green’ subsidies to encourage environmentally beneficial behaviour and ‘brown’ taxes and charges to increase the cost of activities which pollute or otherwise degrade the environment. 1.5.1.4 The Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP), 1997The Swaziland Environment Action Plan follows the vision of the NDS, and is divided into two parts, the first being the actual action plan, and the second an overall land and environment policy framework. Both the NDS and the SEAP are concerned with sustainable development, with the NDS focusing more on the 'development' side and the SEAP more on the 'sustainable' side. In this context, the National Forest Policy has the freedom to improve upon any forestry-specific recommendations already made in the NDS or SEAP. 1.5.1.5 The draft National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP), 2001Although initiated by the International Convention on Biological Diversity, ratified by Swaziland in 1994, the BSAP is an integral part of the SEAP. The BSAP recognises that the biodiversity in Swaziland is unusual for a country so small; six physiographic zones are normally spread over a much wider area. As is to be expected with the importance of forestry in the biosphere, references to forestry also pervade this document. It makes reference to forestry’s importance in social value systems, both in the formal economic and traditional senses. It recognises uncontrolled cutting of wood as one of the six serious threats to the habitat; the loss of indigenous trees is also the loss of shelter for birds, animals, etc. 1.5.1.6 The National Physical Development Plan (NPDP), 1996The National Physical Development Plan 1996-2006 (NPDP) envisions spatial dimensions of development in Swaziland. It makes particular reference to plantation forestry, noting the potential for expansion of commercial forestry plantations in areas around Piggs Peak, Bhunya and Nhlangano. It also refers to the size and value of the commercial timber resource and its effect on the indigenous flora. Areas of protection-worthy forests, for example, could be given the force of law by such plans. 1.5.1.7 The draft National Population Policy Framework for Swaziland, 2000The draft National Population Policy Framework for Swaziland addresses the rapid population growth in relation to a complex of related issues, including changing health conditions and care, worsening unemployment, increased consumption needs and gender equity. The main goal of the draft Policy is to improve the quality of life by influencing the demographic trends as well as respond to challenges such as HIV/AIDS. The draft Policy defines Policy Objectives, Policy Targets and Policy Strategies as the major elements of its Framework. It is envisaged that the implementation of the Policy shall involve a wide range of multi-sectoral activities at national, regional and community levels. The environment is recognised as an important factor in population matters. The draft Policy notes with concern the increasing environmental degradation, with increased population pressure as one of its main underlying causes. The draft Policy recommends to promote community forests and land reclamation programmes, as well as review of cultural practices that have a negative influence on the environment. High incidence of poverty and malnutrition are related to high levels of food insecurity. Agriculture and forestry are recognised as important sectors with respect to income and employment. The draft Policy recommends intensification and diversification of production to improve food security and nutrition levels. 1.5.2 Sectoral policies and strategies1.5.2.1 The Urban Government Policy, 1996The Urban Government Policy sets out definitions, basic functions, services and other important management aspects of the urban areas. The development of parks, trees and open space is mentioned as part of the public facilities. The Policy indicates that a strategic planning process will be implemented to guide infrastructure and community development. Dynamic structure plans will involve the active participation of citizens, and accommodate their needs, e.g. through advisory boards on parks and recreation. As such the Policy provides for initiatives with regard to the development of urban forest and other green areas. 1.5.2.2 The draft Peri-urban Growth Policy, 1997The most important aspect of this draft policy from a forestry perspective is the institution of community-based process management in peri-urban areas, including the establishment of spatial plans based upon recognised principles of sustainable development. Protection-worthy areas can gain the protection of the rule of law by such means. Further, the establishment of forests is seen as a means of land use while holding land for later urban development. 1.5.2.3 The draft Tourism Policy, 2000The vision of this draft policy is to develop the tourism sector as a national priority in a sustainable and acceptable manner to the continued improvement of the quality of life in the Kingdom of Swaziland. Although not addressing forestry directly, there is no question that forests, particularly indigenous forests underpin one of Swaziland’s three key features for tourism purposes. Forests and woodlands are integral part of the overall physical landscape of the country and the attractiveness of the largely intact natural environment. 1.5.2.4 The draft Resettlement Policy, 2001The draft Resettlement Policy provides guidelines for the implementation of resettlement programmes. The draft Policy does not contain statements directly relating to forests and woodlands, however the section on land use practices includes statements on environmental degradation and mitigation measures, which should be inclusive of forests. Compensation arrangements for resettlements are to be based on compensation of lost rights and assets, which should include trees. Under the institutional framework Communal Forest Resources Committees are proposed as subcommittees of Rural Land Development Committees, to ensure sustainable and equitable utilisation of communal natural forest resources. 1.5.2.5 The Livestock Development Policy, 1995Forests and woodlands, in particular communal Swazi Nation Land areas, are grazing and browsing resources for herbivores. Several of the objectives of the Livestock Development Policy have a bearing on the use and management of forest resources, namely to introduce intensive production technologies and improved range management practices based upon community participation, and improve pasture and fodder production and the use of supplemental feeding. Recommendations relevant to forestry include the fencing of grazing land, allowing rotational grazing, and the sustainable use of rangelands. 1.5.2.6 The draft National Water Policy, 2000 and Bill, 2001As there is pressure on the water resource from many directions, both quantitatively and qualitatively, the draft National Water Policy and Bill intend to deal with matters of general water policies and water management, including apportionment. The Policy calls for the representation of stakeholders in water basin authorities and other bodies responsible for watershed management. A key issue is the pricing of water, which will impact on forests in many different ways. The 2001 Bill was gazetted in March 2001 and awaits approval by parliament. 1.5.2.7 The draft National Energy Policy, 2001The National Energy Policy is currently in the process of being formulated as part of the Swaziland National Energy Policy Project. Policy issues and options are discussed in the 2001 draft Policy Options Paper. The policy formulation covers a wide range of issues and topics, including security of energy supply, indigenous resources for the generation of energy, energy saving and efficiency, handling and use of petroleum products, supply and use of electricity, and the overall governance of the energy sector. Of particular relevance to forestry are the statements on indigenous resources and the use of energy in areas not connected to grid electricity, which includes fuelwood from woodlots and forests. 1.5.2.8 The draft Rural Electrification Policy, 2001This policy is subsidiary to the National Energy Policy. The vision of the Policy is that access to energy is made available to all by 2010, and access to electricity for all by 2022. The Policy has identified priorities for schools, health care and other public services, and also for important development areas. The objective most relevant to forestry is to provide access to electricity to as many homesteads as possible in order to slow down the rate of fuelwood consumption. 1.5.2.9 The National Action Program of the Convention to Combat Desertification (NAP), 1998The ratification of the Convention to Combat Desertification in 1996 by Swaziland has resulted in the formulation of a National Action Program (NAP) in 1998. The most relevant observation on forestry is that there are no regulations and guidelines on the cutting of trees and land clearance in the country. As a result, deforestation is on the increase in Swaziland and this situation needs to be addressed urgently. The environmental impacts are manifested in severe soil erosion and water depletion. People cut trees for fuelwood, building, craft and medicinal purposes. There is a need to develop and encourage the use of alternative sources of energy in the country. 1.5.2.10 National Initiatives of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1996Swaziland is a signatory to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (1996). What happens in the world in general is likely to have a far more marked influence on Swaziland’s climate than what happens within Swaziland. Although small in area, Swaziland is not small in either its physical and biological diversity and climatic changes will have an impact on this diversity. The global climatic extremities that occurred throughout the 1990s also affected Swaziland’s biosphere. Gradualist models of climate change indicate threats to indigenous forests. It has been realised that forests have a greater influence upon the global climate, and hence upon climate change, than hitherto generally appreciated. Swaziland’s response to the Framework Convention is addressed in studies on climate vulnerability and its relationship with forests and ecosystems. 1.6 Existing LegislationThe legislation dealing explicitly with forests and forestry share the main shortcomings of the legal framework for environmental management in general in Swaziland. The Acts considered most relevant to forestry are briefly discussed in two groupings, namely Acts that create institutions and Acts that deal with flora protection and management. A full overview of relevant Acts is given in Appendix 1. 1.6.1 Institutional Acts1.6.1.1 The Natural Resources Act 71/1951This Act is to provide for the conservation and improvements of the natural resources and for other matters incidental thereto. Many of the functions of the Act remained with the Ministry responsible for agriculture, making implementation and control by the Natural Resources Board (NRB) extremely difficult. Of late the NRB has tended to concentrate on rural sub-divisions following identification of NRB as the responsible authority in terms of the Sub-Division of Land Act 7/1957. The NRB also administer the Control of the Tree Planting Act 7/1972. Discussions confirm that the Act is old and does not take into consideration present day situations and conditions. Over the years there has been considerable overlapping both with regard to the general provisions and to the Board. For example, other statutory Boards with similar or conflicting functions have been established including the Water Apportionment Board (established by the Water Act 1968), the Land Speculation Control Board (established by the Land Speculation Act 1972) and the National Trust Commission (established by the Trust Commission Act 1972). In addition, the Swaziland Environment Act 1992 was intended to be the umbrella statute for conservation matters but it appears that the control and modernisation of the existing boards and legislation has not been adequately addressed. Also in 1951, Regulations were issued under this Act prohibiting anyone from building, planting crops, or destroying natural vegetation within 100 feet (approximately 30 metres) of a bank or verge of a public stream. 1.6.1.2 The Swaziland Environment Authority Act 15/1992This Act makes provision for the establishment of the Swaziland Environment Authority, its functions and powers, composition, meetings, appointment of Director, preparation of annual reports, remuneration of members, offences and fines, appeals by aggrieved persons, making of regulations, and supremacy. Important Regulations have been added to this Act, namely the Environmental Audit, Assessment and Review Regulations 2000 and the Waste Regulations 2000. The 2001 Environment Management Bill, to replace the Swaziland Environment Authority Act, was gazetted in May 2001. The 1999 draft National Environment Policy has been developed simultaneously with the 2001 Bill (see section 1.5.1.3). The objectives of the Bill most relevant to forestry are (1) to establish a framework for environmental protection and the integrated management of natural resources on a sustainable basis, and (2) establish the National Environment Fund. 1.6.1.3 The Swazi Administration Order 6/1998This order, assented to by His Majesty on 13th November 1998, provides the incorporation of the law governing appointment, removal and functions of Chiefs and Tindvuna into the law relating to the administration of Swazi Affairs. It repeals the 1950 Act. Under section 27 of the Order, the ‘Ngwenyama’ provides the Chiefs with administrative control over:
1.6.2 Flora Protection and Management Acts1.6.2.1 The Flora Protection Act 5/2001This is an Act to protect indigenous flora and to provide for matters incidental thereto. The 2001 Act replaces the 1952 Act. The Act prohibits any person from plucking, gathering, cutting, uprooting, injuring, breaking or destroying a plant of any species that is listed in the Schedule to the Act. The Minister responsible for agriculture is empowered to establish and extend flora reserves and botanical gardens. What is significantly different about the new Act as compared to the 1952 Act is a requirement that an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) be carried out in respect of any activity that would impact on indigenous flora. 1.6.2.2 The Control of Tree Planting Act 7/1972This is an Act to provide for the control of the planting of certain trees grown for commercial purposes on Title Deed Land (TDL) and for matters incidental thereto. It is understood that this Act was introduced to discourage the growing of plantations and forests on prime agricultural land and has been useful in this regard. The main problems have however been enforcement and the provision in the second schedule that land already owned by timber companies is exempt from control. The Act therefore only checks the growth of plantations but does not provide for prime land to be reclaimed for agricultural purposes. 1.7 International linkages1.7.1 International initiatives and forest principlesAt the global level, deforestation was undisputedly one of the major environmental issues of the 20th century, and is likely to be even more important in the 21st. Environmental problems were addressed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), culminating in Agenda 21. A set of principles specifically related to forestry emanated from UNCED, entitled "Non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests". These Forest Principles deal with all basic aspects of forestry and form a very suitable international framework. A summary of the most relevant aspects for Swaziland is given in Appendix 2. There is a host of international programmes addressing various aspects relating to forestry. The present umbrella for all forestry related initiatives is the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF), which reports to the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) of the United Nations. The IFF was established in 1997, and is a follow-up to the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) established in 1995. Such initiatives are based upon the core concept of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM). The United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), established in 2000, is to further develop and consolidate international forest issues and to recommend appropriate future arrangements and co-operative mechanisms to achieve sustainable forest management. 1.7.2 International conventionsSwaziland is a signatory to international conventions and agreements emanating from UNCED and other occasions, and has ratified such conventions. Details of conventions and agreements Swaziland has an obligation to or is involved in are given in Appendix 2. The conventions most relevant to forestry are:
1.7.3 The Forest Protocol of the Southern African Development Community (SADC)The 1992 Treaty establishing the Southern African Development Community (SADC), of which Swaziland is a member, has called for the development of sector protocols to foster and enhance economic integration and co-operation in the region. The Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Sector of SADC has embarked on the development and formulation of a sector protocol. As part of this process, the Forestry sub-sector has prepared a draft Forestry Protocol to guide the sustainable management, conservation, utilisation and sustainable development of forest resources in the SADC region. The protocol addresses issues such as forestry research, training and education, human resources development, information management, as well as institutional and legal framework matters including trans-boundary concerns. The draft Forestry Protocol provides for the formulation of national forest policies, national forestry programmes and forest legislation, which should be kept in harmony with the guiding principles and regulatory elements and framework of the SADC Protocol. Other sub-sector protocols of relevance and significance to the forestry sub-sector include the Fisheries, Wildlife, Energy and Trade Protocols, which have been signed and ratified by member states, or are still under formulation. 1.7.4 International trade agreementsThe marketing and trade of forest products, like many other economic export commodities such as sugar, beef and other products, are subject to changing regional and international trade agreements. For a long time export timber products have been sold through preferential agreements within the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), or with the European Union, the United States of America and other African and Asian countries. However, current arrangements as set out by the SADC Trade Protocol and the World Trade Organization (WTO) do advocate trade liberalisation, which means that trade of forest products will accordingly be subjected to the conditions of these agreements and protocols. To anticipate future trends and changing developments, it is important that the national marketing and trade intelligence is further enhanced, with the inclusion of statistical capabilities. 2 ISSUES AND POLICY STATEMENTSThe issues and policy statements of the National Forest Policy are presented in four major sections, namely Industrial Forestry, Community Forestry, Urban Forestry and Natural Forests and Woodlands. The order of these sections does not indicate any relative importance, as all these sectors are considered important to national development. However, the Natural Forests and Woodlands are currently the most underdeveloped sector and form the most challenging task in forestry. High priority should be attained to the sustainable management of the Natural Forests and Woodlands, which are of crucial importance to multiple utilisation and maintaining of biological diversity. Industrial Forestry is the most solidly established and economically most important sector. Community Forestry and Urban Forestry have only recently found general recognition and their development deserves national attention and strong support. 2.1 Industrial ForestryThe commercial forest sector is a valuable economic asset to the national economy providing employment and foreign exchange (see also section 1.1). However, the forest resource has to be managed on a sustainable basis to continue providing these important functions in the future. 2.1.1 Sustainable management of commercial plantationsSustainable forest management practices need to be applied at all levels of management and operations, by both large and small forest plantation estates. The main aspects of sustainable forest management are economic, social and environmental; which are all three essential in forest certification. 2.1.1.1 Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest managementForest certification has been set up to satisfy consumer demands and hence to improve the competitive position of forestry companies. In order to qualify for forest certification by internationally accredited organisations a company must comply with a set of regulations. Sustainable forest management should include the following practices:
Issue Although all large commercial plantation forestry companies in Swaziland are currently managed under a certified environmental management system, either FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) or ISO 14001, smaller companies, including wattle growers, are generally not certified. The present situation with over 90 percent of all commercial forest plantation area being certified indicates that sustainable plantation forest management is to a large extent in place, taking into account protection of catchment areas, biodiversity, and soil and water resources. Local unsustainable practices may still occur, notably with smaller companies. It is expected that the current certification systems will adopt the new national criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. Policy All plantation forestry companies and individual growers must comply with the national criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in Swaziland. The criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management as being developed in Swaziland are based on the standard international criteria and indicators and will be applied to compel industrial forestry to adopt environmentally sustainable practices in their forest management. Both companies and individuals will have to comply with the national criteria and indicators in order to obtain certification that the products are manufactured in an environmentally sustainable manner. The Ministry responsible for forestry is the designated authority to monitor that forest management practices do not violate the established or revised thresholds, in collaboration with relevant national and regional institutions. The draft national level criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in Swaziland are listed in Appendix 3. Furthermore, the operations of the forest industry have to conform to and comply with the quality standards policies and laws as well as labour laws of Swaziland such as the Quality Standards Bill of 2000 and the Industrial Relations Act of 2000. 2.1.1.2 Economic sustainabilityMarket forces determine whether plantation forestry is economically sustainable, which is reflected by changes in the rotation age. Apart from such economic considerations, there is the issue of narrow-sense sustainability, or the question whether plantation forestry is biologically sound and indefinite rotations of trees can be grown on the same site. 2.1.1.2.1 Long-term economic sustainability of plantation forestsFactors to be taken into account include the long-term effects of site changes, influences of genetic improvements, fertiliser and other chemical treatments, and the risk of diseases. Issue Forestry research findings indicate that long-term productivity can be assured and sustained, but there remains a need to critically follow the factual evidence of productivity stability or changes over time. Of future importance is the question how global impacts of climate change and air pollution will affect plantation sustainability. Policy The Ministry responsible for forestry shall collaborate with the private sector in research programmes aimed at maintaining economic sustainability through tree and site improvement. The strategy to implement the policy should be based on estimated potential of natural resources, with expansion largely achieved by larger yields, through greater efficiency sustained by research, increased growth rate, and improved management, in particular with respect to pests, diseases and fire. 2.1.1.2.2 Introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)Genetically modified exotic tree species are already used elsewhere in the industrial forestry and are expected in Swaziland in the near future. Genetically modified tree species have the potential to increase the yield and profitability of forest plantations, in particular through increased growth rate, density and immunity to certain pests and diseases. Issue Although genetically modified tree species offer important economic opportunities and benefits, there are environmental and ecological risks connected to the introduction of GMOs. The potential ecological dangers include out-competing natural plant species, increased water consumption, increased encroachment due to uncontrollable invasiveness, increased risk to certain pests and diseases, and narrowing the genetic base. Policy Application of genetically modified tree species should be considered in Swaziland, but their introduction should be handled with caution. International guidelines are provided by the 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Approval in Swaziland must be obtained from the Ministry responsible for forestry before any genetically modified tree species can be brought into the country. The introduced GMOs will be monitored and kept under surveillance through sustainable forest and environment management. A national policy and legislation on GMOs will be developed, and introduction should be subject to a risk assessment. 2.1.1.3 Social sustainabilitySustainable social management of industrial forestry relates to the socio-economic requirements of local people, in particular neighbouring communities. Social management concentrates on participation and sound planning with the communities living adjacent to plantations. Issue It appears that the current relationship between forestry companies and communities is not always optimal. There are indications that plantation forestry companies sustain substantial losses through timber damage as a result of high fire incidence, of which a large proportion is caused by arson and veld fires that have been started from adjacent communal areas. The underlying cause may be a lack of benefits or dissatisfaction with certain management aspects. Policy Forest companies and neighbouring communities should foster good relationships. Improved relationship requires the forest companies to provide incentives and benefits to local people and communities, but also requires a clear understanding and appreciation by the communities of the importance of the forest companies to the economy of the country and themselves. Both parties are encouraged to improve relationships by discussing and solving outstanding issues and achieve mutual understanding. The Ministry responsible for forestry shall play a mediating role and point out clearly the benefits of improved relationship, but also indicating the role of the law in cases of arson and theft. The importance of the multiple functions of plantation forestry to companies and communities is further outlined in section 2.1.2. 2.1.1.4 Environmental sustainabilityEnvironmental management aims to maintain and improve natural physical and biological processes. These aspects are included in the forest certification principles, in the criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management and in international agreements. Plantation forestry, like other land uses such as irrigated agriculture, has an impact on the environment in general and on biodiversity in particular. It is important that these effects of cultivation practices are recognised, quantified and sustained. There are concerns with respect to alteration of the landscape, degradation of the soil, high water consumption and effects on vulnerable ecosystems. 2.1.1.4.1 Effects on water consumptionAn important factor in environmental sustainability is the volume of water used by forestry in excess of the water used by the natural environment, which could be considered an extra cost. Not only is the presence of water in the soil essential to the growth of forests, but improved water yield and quality are becoming increasingly important watershed management objectives (see also section 2.1.2.2). Issue Plantation forests consume large quantities of water. Although there is information available from various sources in South Africa and elsewhere, reliable and specific estimates of the impact of plantation forestry on the water resources in Swaziland are not available. Policy Plantation forestry companies and all other watershed users must apply methods to reduce water consumption and pollution, and establish a balanced use of water by all consumers. Government agencies responsible for forestry, water management and environment, in collaboration with the forest companies, will be required to carry out a nation-wide mapping of catchment areas, watersheds and watercourses, both inside and outside forest plantation areas, in order to achieve adequate estimates of water consumption. For instance, an effective way to increase water yields is to clear important watercourses from invasive alien species, in particular weeds and wattle trees (see also sections 2.2.2.2 and 2.4.7.3.3). Efficient and reliable methods to assess the water resources as part of integrated watershed management will increase the knowledge of the water balance and improve the basis for the decision making on the sustainable use of the available water resources. In addition, effects of fertilisers and chemicals such as pesticides on water resources have to be monitored (see also sections 2.1.1.4.2 and 2.1.1.4.4). The principle of the Environment Policy that the cost of water consumption is to be borne by the user should be applied. 2.1.1.4.2 Effects on soil propertiesThere is evidence that forestry activities have a negative impact on both chemical and physical soil properties, such as nutrient status, soil reaction and soil structure. Forestry companies are well aware of these negative effects and they have to some extent developed practices to avoid and rectify the situation. Issue Plantation forestry activities, in particular harvesting and the use of chemicals, negatively influence soil properties and may lead to irreversible soil degradation. Policy Commercial forest companies must develop and introduce forest management practices that minimise soil degradation, in particular the long-term residual effects of fertilisers and pesticides. Forest companies should further address the issue of soil degradation, in particular soil compaction, acidification and depleted nutrient status, and take into account that forestry should not be allowed on vulnerable soils in fragile ecosystems. Harvesting practices, fertiliser programs and other methods with a low impact on the environmental conditions must be continuously researched and further improved. Changes in the condition of soil properties should be closely monitored and remedial measures applied. 2.1.1.4.3 Effects on biodiversityThe impact on biodiversity is inherent to the expansion of plantation forestry and as such inevitable. It is also not unique to this industry, as there are similar impacts from other sectors, e.g. the sugar industry. Issue Industrial forestry has in general a negative impact on biodiversity through replacing natural vegetation by monocultures, and to some extent also through invasion of exotic species from the plantation onto adjacent land. The three larger companies in Swaziland have already successful programmes in place to enhance biodiversity within the plantation - notably in the unplanted areas - and to minimise contamination of adjacent land, but this is not the case with most of the smaller companies and smallholder growers. Policy Commercial forest companies and individual growers have to introduce and further develop forest management practices that maintain biodiversity at acceptable levels. All forestry companies and individual growers must have management practices in place to enhance biodiversity conservation within the plantation and control contamination from inside and outside the plantation. Most companies have effective programmes to control harmful species invading the plantations from outside. Indigenous trees should be left intact or planted along firebreaks, watercourses and other parts of the plantation that are not used for the growing of commercial tree species. The companies must ensure that the most valuable aspects of biodiversity within the plantation are conserved. Co-ordinated planning with the other users of land within the watershed and monitoring by the relevant authorities should be undertaken. Regulations such as Environmental Impact Assessments and Environmental Audits describing the joint responsibility of Government and the private sector for establishing strategies for the conservation of the biodiversity and specific habitats will be an important step forward. The principle should be applied that the environmental costs of afforestation are to be borne by the user. Identified management practices include water catchment identification, river course prioritisation, creation of buffer zones, alien plant removal, control of burning regimes, limiting disturbance and preservation of the forest ecotone. 2.1.1.4.4 Pollution and effluents from wood production and processing industriesIndustries associated with the commercial forest plantations use the wood products from the plantations for the production of secondary products such as pulp, chips, logs, timber and bark tannin. Most of these activities, including waste in production forests, have only minor effects on the environment, but especially the pulp and paper industries use large quantities of water, which return to the environment in polluted form. Without adequate regulation, the pollution from such processing industries impacts negatively on both the human and biophysical environment. Issue There are indications that effluents discharged from wood processing industries, in particular the pulp and paper industries, do not always meet safe standards, which may lead to pollution of water and air. Continuous pollution may result in major catastrophes with permanent damage to the environment. Policy The ‘polluter pays’ principle shall be applied and enforced in all cases of pollution of the environment by effluents from forest and wood or paper processing industries. Acceptable environmental standards including permissible levels of industrial effluents, emissions and waste disposal are established by the Waste Regulation 2000 as part of the Swaziland Environment Authority Act of 1992 and enforced by the responsible institutions and authorities. There is a need to also regulate air pollution. 2.1.2 Multiple use of plantationsIn addition to the primary commercial purpose of plantation forests, there are presently important additional developments towards the multiple use of the plantation forests, which include an array of other functions and services. These include commercial, social and environmental activities, which are currently part of the overall sustainable plantation forest management (see previous section 2.1.1). Of particular importance are the commercial outgrower schemes (see section 2.1.3). Other important functions are enhancement of social and economic livelihoods of neighbouring communities, the role of plantation forests in watershed management and in fuelwood supply (sections 2.1.2.1, 2.1.2.2 and 2.1.2.3). 2.1.2.1 Collection of plantation forest products by neighbouring communitiesSeveral plantation forest companies have initiated programmes to improve social relations and economic empowerment of neighbouring communities. Community members are allowed limited access to the forest for the collection of specific products, such as honey, mushrooms, grasses and reeds for handicraft and traditional ceremonies, and are provided with by-products such as fuelwood, debris, etc. Issue Not all of the commercial companies have satisfactory programmes in place to provide neighbouring communities with plantation forest products. Although the important contribution made by certain forest companies is acknowledged, there is room for expansion, also with respect to broadening the scope of products. Policy Commercial companies should further extend and enhance the programmes to provide social and economic benefits from the controlled collection of forest products to communities adjacent to plantations. Both large and small commercial companies should cover comprehensive programmes. Government should encourage the extension of such programmes between communities and companies. 2.1.2.2 The role of plantation forests in overall watershed managementThe major companies are setting aside areas for conservation and protection of biodiversity, and have also initiated programmes to enhance recreation and tourism, such as fishing, hiking and picnic facilities. Issue Plantation forestry is a major influence on the multiple functions of watersheds, and there is presently insufficient co-ordination with the other users within the watershed. Policy To protect biodiversity and promote recreation and tourism, plantation owners should co-operate with other landowners and users in overall watershed management. Co-operation and co-ordination with other users of the catchment will facilitate potentials that can only emerge from the multiple uses. For instance, the draft National Water Policy calls for the representation of stakeholders in water basin authorities and other bodies responsible for watershed management. All stakeholders, including large and small plantation forest estates have to conform to and comply with requirements and regulations of sustainable water resource management and environmental management. 2.1.2.3 The role of industrial forestry in national energy supplySubstantial national and localised shortages of fuelwood are expected to occur in the near future, which calls for increased supply from sustainable sources, including plantation forests (see also section 2.4.4.3). Issue The demand for fuelwood and other energy sources in Swaziland is expected to increase, which will result in shortages. Increased supply from plantation forests and forest industries can meet some of the increased fuelwood demand. Policy The commercial plantations and the forest industries should be encouraged to play an increasing role in contributing to the national fuelwood supply. Increased supply in addition to the already existing free delivery to neighbouring communities should be economically and environmentally sustainable with respect to overall forest plantation management. Conversion of mill waste to energy could make a significant contribution, as indicated by the draft National Energy Policy Options Paper (1.5.2.7). Various other options should be investigated, such as commercial trade in waste from forests through licensing systems to adjacent communities or entrepreneurs, or by the companies themselves. Additional value adding processing should be considered, e.g. production of briquettes from saw dust and timber waste. 2.1.3 Commercial forestry outgrower schemesForestry companies are enlarging their plantation scope by contracting rural timber outgrowers in nearby communities to grow timber on Swazi Nation Land (SNL), and to some extent also on Title Deed Land (TDL). This is presently taking place at a small scale, and schemes are not long enough in place to evaluate results. Key issues that have emerged relate to planning, acquisition of land, size of plots, and management, as well as to possibilities of establishing smart partnerships, joint ventures and co-management of commercial forest plantations by communities jointly with or on behalf of forest companies. 2.1.3.1 Planning of outgrower schemesCurrent planning and expansion of outgrower forest schemes are generally not based on rational land use planning (see also next section 2.1.4). Issue It appears that land suitability and environmental and biodiversity aspects are not satisfactorily included in the planning of outgrower schemes. Policy In principle, outgrower schemes shall not be located in protection-worthy areas or on good quality arable land, but on marginal land or on eroded land which can be rehabilitated through afforestation. Site selection has to be improved, with Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a compulsory routine exercise as part of the planning required by the Regulations 2000 emanating from the Swaziland Environment Authority Act (see section 1.6.1.2). Planning should be based on Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ), indicating land suitability for various uses. The Control of Tree Planting Act of 1972 should be reviewed or applied with more flexibility with respect to the need for expansion for outgrower schemes. 2.1.3.2 Traditional administration and tenure rights of outgrower schemesIt is important to take into account tenure rights and land related disputes in present and planned outgrower schemes. Issue There is concern about the proper involvement of traditional administration and rights with respect to the land and tree tenure. As a principle, land and tree tenure should be guaranteed by the Constitution (section 1.4). Policy The selection of sites from Swazi Nation Land (SNL) must involve the traditional administrative structures of the country, to ensure security of tenure of the land and trees planted for the duration of the crop, and resolve conflict situations. The Ministry responsible for land tenure will advise in land tenure matters and the Ministry responsible for forestry will provide forest extension services in liaison with the forest plantation companies. 2.1.4 Prospects for expansion of plantation forestIncreasing international demand for wood products makes on one hand the future outlook for the forest industry in Swaziland promising, but will on the other put more pressure on present land, water and forest resources. Plans exist for substantial expansion of plantation forests in Swaziland, largely on the basis of economic justification, such as revenue generation and employment. Uncertain factors relating to the expansion of plantation forests in Swaziland include the unstable export markets and fluctuating prices, especially for pulpwood. However, funding for afforestation in developing countries has become a feasible option for some large foreign power producers with the additional purpose of establishing carbon sink schemes. 2.1.4.1 Sustainable expansion of industrial forest areaConversion of land to plantation forest is now subject to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) through the Regulations of the Swaziland Environment Authority Act. Although expansion may help alleviate pressure on the natural resource base and increase carbon sequestration, commercial forestry as a land use is competing with other land uses such as crop production, grazing, and residential use. Issue Increasing international demand for wood products would favour the expansion of plantation forestry in Swaziland, notwithstanding uncertainties of markets and prices, but excessive expansion would ask a heavy toll from the scarce commodity of land in Swaziland. Suitable land for forest expansion will be hard to find. Forestry companies are normally acquiring private Title Deed Land (TDL) for expansion, but remaining private land is very limited. The only option would be to identify new land for plantations from Swazi Nation Land (SNL) in the Highveld and Upper Middleveld. This option also seems limited, considering the increasing population density and the present need for other land uses in these zones. Policy A gradual and sustainable expansion of the industrial forest area will be promoted, in balance with the overall land distribution and land use, and in consideration of all possible effects on population and biodiversity. According to the National Development Strategy (NDS) new commercial forestry plantations should only be developed in those Highveld areas with sufficient rainfall and low potential for other agricultural use, taking care not to disturb ecological and population balance. The Control of Tree Planting Act of 1972 should be reviewed in view of the need for commercial forest expansion, in particular with respect to flexibility to grant tree-planting permits. The expansion of industrial forestry estates should take into cognisance the investment and industrial development policies and laws of Swaziland, such as the Industrial Development Policy and Investment Promotions Act of 1998. There is a need to carry out a rational system of planning based on land evaluation and Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ) when considering conversion of the current land use to forest plantation, taking into account the following issues:
2.1.5 Value Adding InitiativesAt the present time there is insufficient value adding to forest products in Swaziland. The majority of the wood from the industrial companies is exported to South Africa and overseas countries as unprocessed round wood and semi-processed products. 2.1.5.1 Establishment of value adding industriesThe current situation constitutes a lost opportunity for Swaziland in terms of revenue generation, foreign exchange earnings and job creation. Issue The majority of commercial forest products are currently exported as unprocessed wood or semi-processed products, with relatively low added value. Policy The establishment of value adding industries for the processing of wood products should be promoted, and the export of unprocessed or semi-processed forest products be discouraged. It is important to create an enabling environment for potential investors by providing adequately skilled human resources and efficient infrastructure. Enhancing existing tax incentives for the establishment of downstream forest products processing industries could also facilitate this policy. It should be investigated whether this could be achieved through offering pioneer status with tax exemption and industry protection for a given period of time, and whether the introduction of export taxes on unprocessed or semi-processed products would have the desired effect. Such tax could decrease with the level of processing till a zero level on fully processed final products. The introduction of resource rent in future plantation expansion should also be considered. 2.1.5.2 Forestry and existing fiscal policyAs a matter of principle, forest policy aspects need to be harmonised with the existing fiscal policy, as is the case with other sectoral policies, such as the draft National Water Policy. Issue At the present moment Government is not generating revenue from certain forestry practices, such as harvesting through concessions, whereas taxes should be raised in such cases according to the current fiscal policy. Policy Stumpage or royalty taxes should be introduced when a concession is given for harvesting of trees on government land, and resource rental should be introduced for leased government land and Swazi Nation Land. Taxes received could be channelled back for further development of the forestry sector, in particular community forestry and management of the natural forests and woodlands. 2.2 Community ForestryCommunity or social forestry refers to communal, group and individual participation in the planning, implementation and management of social and economic forestry in the local environment. Community forestry relates to applications such as farm or homestead forestry, agro-forestry, woodlots, and planting and use of trees in conservation, rehabilitation or other rural schemes. It has links with commercial forestry through outgrower schemes on communal land (section 2.1.3) and with urban forestry applied on urban and peri-urban land (section 2.3). Community forestry is also involved with the use and management of natural forests and woodlands (section 2.4) as well as with wattle forests within the community boundaries (section 2.2.2). Community forestry is currently characterised by a complex setting in terms of land tenure, ownership and user rights, management responsibility and conflict of traditional and modern values. Such issues should be resolved in order to develop community forestry as a self-sustaining activity without reliance on external inputs. In particular ownership and user rights are issues that play an important role in development of woodlots (section 2.2.1.3), wattle management (section 2.2.2.4) and natural forest management (section 2.2.5.2). In order to develop all aspects of sustainable community forestry, there is an immediate requirement to provide specific services to communities, such as assistance in planning and selection of suitable tree species, provision of seedlings, and training in forest management (section 2.2.6). Communities need to organise themselves in Forest Management Committees, which should work in close co-operation with the existing community traditional structures. Several of the participatory forestry programmes recommended for implementation in the urban and peri-urban areas (see section 2.3.1.4) are also applicable to community forestry in the rural areas, in particular with respect to concentrated residential areas, schools compounds and recreational areas. 2.2.1 Community woodlotsThe establishment of community woodlots in Swaziland is a relatively new development to supplement fuelwood and timber in addition to other sources such as wattle and natural forests. Most of the recently implemented woodlots consist of Eucalyptus (gum), which grows especially well in the Highveld and Upper Middleveld. The majority of the wattle forests, which only occur in these two zones, are in fact also used as woodlots. Eucalyptus species which are successfully grown in the higher rainfall zones are normally less suitable in the dryer zones of the Lower Middleveld and Lowveld, where a better use should be made of suitable indigenous species, or of specially selected drought resistant or drought tolerant exotic species and hybrids. The success rate of woodlots is difficult to assess because of their short existence. However, failures have been recorded after the initial implementation stage by Government or NGOs, caused by deficiencies in planning and design, lack of management and co-ordination as well as by conflicts in the sharing of benefits. The management of woodlots is the most important aspect of the production process, in particular yields need improvement, such as through coppicing practices. Joint evaluation of current woodlots by the Ministries responsible for forestry and energy should enhance future woodlot development. 2.2.1.1 Planning of woodlotsWoodlots are often implemented in isolation of other communal developments. Most are designed for the production of fuelwood, but experience shows that for economic reasons the primary use by the community is for timber, with fuelwood as a by-product. Whole communities, groups or individuals, with different social and economic intentions and interests establish woodlots. Issue Woodlot planning is currently not part of integrated rural development planning, and communities are not sufficiently involved in the design and decision making process on the purpose and utilisation of woodlots. Policy Woodlots have to be planned for through participatory land use planning as integral part of holistic rural development, based on the assessment of community needs. Overall deficit or surplus of local wood production and woodland regeneration, including from wattle forests, should be assessed in a situation analysis before the planning and design of woodlots. An economic analysis needs to be carried out to determine which type of woodlot and tree species is most appropriate. Assessment of the suitability of the land should be the basis for the identification of suitable locations. In particular degraded land should be designated for woodlots, with the additional benefit of contributing to land rehabilitation. Since the introduction of the requirement of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for the establishment of woodlots, environmental and biodiversity aspects have to be taken into consideration in the planning process. 2.2.1.2 Community woodlot management skillsThe lack of co-ordination in implementation and maintenance, and hence low production, indicates lack of community management skills. Issue Most communities do not to have the necessary technical knowledge to manage woodlots. Policy Community members shall be supported and trained to develop forestry management skills for improving the management and monitoring of woodlots. Improved management may be achieved through the establishment of communal Forest Management Committees (see also section 2.2.5), with an important training role for the extension services of the Ministry responsible for forestry, and to some extent the private sector. 2.2.1.3 Ownership and user rights of woodlotsAs a matter of principle, ownership and user rights of trees should be clearly defined with respect to tree tenure as well as land tenure. Issue There is lack of clarity of ownership and user rights of community owned woodlots, resulting in disagreements over benefits and revenue sharing. Harvesting and other practices related to the use of woodlots by community leaders are often not in the interest of the community. Poorly controlled woodlot harvesting practices without shared benefits range from removing single trees to clear felling. Policy Important stakeholder issues such as ownership, equitable access and sharing of benefits of woodlot products must be resolved and defined, including the role and rights of the traditional authorities. Land allocation procedures should be transparent with regard to rights of tree planting and harvesting. Stakeholders need to organise themselves in Forest Management Committees to negotiate and reach general agreements on sustainable use and management of woodlots, in particular with respect to benefits resulting from harvesting and responsibilities for replanting. 2.2.2 Wattle forestsWattle forests were originally planted as commercial entities and enterprises, but most wattle now grows largely unmanaged. Wattle forests are still commercially exploited (section 2.2.2.1), but many of the wattle stands as presently occurring in the Highveld and Upper Middleveld are only used as communal resources (section 2.2.2.3). Wattle is considered a very useful tree for fuelwood, pulpwood, mining timber, charcoal and tannin, but is also seen as a threat to biodiversity, as it is an invasive species (section 2.2.2.2 and also 2.4.7.3.3). Most of the present wattle resources are currently found on Swazi Nation Land (SNL), and rights of access and utilisation appear to be complicated (section 2.2.2.4). Recent forest inventories have indicated that wattle coverage has not changed significantly over the last ten years, but overall volume and quality seem to have decreased. In general it is observed that wattle forest is expanding and encroaching into other vegetation, cropland, grazing land and sensitive areas such as valley floors. However, it also appears that wattle forest is being overexploited at a higher rate than it regenerates, with the result that the age class structure of the current wattle resource is badly distorted towards young crops. 2.2.2.1 Commercial production and management of wattleThere has been a general decline in the management of commercial wattle forests. Medium and small holders now almost exclusively control commercially grown wattle, as the large industrial companies are phasing out the growing of wattle. Issue Overall commercial management of wattle forests is poor and production of timber and bark tannin is low. Policy In order to attain optimal value, commercial wattle management must be improved through introduction of sustainable practices and improved organisation of the growers. Options to improve current management would include proper registration and organisation of wattle growers and grower co-operatives – such as in the Swaziland Timber Growers Association - and the introduction of planting and management grants or loans. The Ministry responsible for forestry should administer such schemes and assist in initiating funding, and play a further role in extension services to wattle growers. The site selection and planning based on Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ) for wattle expansion has to be improved, with an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a compulsory routine exercise as part of the planning. The Control of Tree Planting Act of 1972 should be reviewed or applied with more flexibility with respect to the need for wattle forest expansion. 2.2.2.2 The effect of wattle on biodiversityWattle (Acacia mearnsii) is an alien invasive tree species and a major threat to biodiversity if not properly managed (see also section 2.4.7.3.3). Issue Wattle has invaded ecosystems where it has a negative impact on the water balance and the natural vegetation. Policy The spread of wattle must be controlled by proper management, and wattle trees have to be removed from ecosystems where they form a threat to biodiversity. 2.2.2.3 Non-commercial use and management of wattle resourcesA large proportion of the wattle resources is used in a non-commercial way, however with a low and unsustainable management level. Wattle is one of the major sources of fuelwood and other wood products on communal land. Considering increasing wood shortages on a national basis, in particular fuelwood, there is a need to increase the role of wattle forests as a source of fuelwood, charcoal and other wood products (see also section 2.4.4.3). Issue As a result of poor management, wattle on communal land is not used to its full potential as a major source of fuelwood, charcoal, poles and other products. Policy Wattle forestry on communal land must be enhanced as a major source of wood products, including fuelwood, charcoal, timber and poles, through improved management practices and distribution systems. Wattle reserves on Swazi Nation Land (SNL) used by communities and individuals should be made more productive and better controlled with respect to encroachment onto other land. Sustainable management should be introduced with the assistance of the Ministry responsible for forestry through communal Forest Management Committees. 2.2.2.4 User rights of wattle on communal landAlthough individuals have in the past planted most wattle on allocated plots on Swazi Nation Land (SNL), this wattle has spread out over other communal land, mostly grazing land. There are conflicts over the user rights of these uncontrolled wattle stands. Issue There is lack of clarity of user rights of uncontrolled wattle trees on communal land. The issue of access and rights is closely related to the management aspect (see previous section 2.2.2.3). Policy The user rights of wattle trees that have spread out over communally used Swazi Nation Land (SNL) shall be defined and agreed to on the basis of equitable access and shared benefits. Ownership and tenure of trees should be clearly defined. All stakeholders, including the traditional authorities, have to negotiate and define the user rights and tree tenure aspects of communal wattle stands. The communal Forest Management Committees should be instrumental in this process. 2.2.3 Agro-forestryAgro-forestry refers to mixed land uses where the use of trees, crops and livestock are integrated. The use of trees in mixed systems provides better micro-climatic conditions for crop growth and supplements the soil with additional nutrients from leaves, roots and branches. Trees with palatable foliage may provide an additional source of fodder. Indigenous fruit trees and vegetables enhance the nutrition of household diets and sustain rural livelihoods through income generating activities. Some traditional agro-forestry systems practised in the country need to be further studied and evaluated with a view to improving these systems for wider implementation. Modern agro-forestry technology includes practices such as the planting of multipurpose trees in specific locations, mixed and hedgerow inter-cropping, live fences, which all aim at alleviating identified constraints such as soil degradation, soil fertility, fodder shortage and shortage of fuelwood and timber. 2.2.3.1 Scope for agro-forestry development in SwazilandAgro-forestry is currently not much practised as part of the existing farming systems in the country. However, climatic conditions in large parts of Swaziland are conducive to the growing of trees, either indigenous or exotic species. Issue There is a lack of application of agro-forestry in Swaziland. There are clear indications that the introduction and use of agro-forestry could provide many advantages and benefits to farmers in Swaziland. Policy Appropriate agro-forestry practices for Swazi farming systems shall be promoted, introduced and further developed, based on national and international research information. The promotion of agro-forestry should include education and training of communities in agro-forestry concepts and management. Institutions to be involved in training and research should include relevant government ministries, the University of Swaziland, forestry companies and NGOs. 2.2.3.2 Selection of suitable tree speciesThe selection of suitable tree species in agro-forestry in general and for specific purposes in particular, such as for woodlots (see section 2.2.1) and land rehabilitation (see section 2.2.4), is an issue that needs further attention. Issue There is a lack of knowledge at community level about the application of suitable tree and shrub species in special circumstances and for specific purposes. Policy The proper selection of suitable tree and plant species on the basis of community needs for each of the Agro-ecological Zones (AEZ) of Swaziland must be an integral part of agro-forestry planning. Specific tree species, with emphasis on indigenous species, should be researched and selected for specific situations, e.g. nitrogen-fixing Acacia species in semi-arid areas. The current situation needs to be assessed with respect to tree seed procurement, production and distribution of the required selected seedlings. 2.2.4 Trees and land rehabilitationForests, woodlots and single trees have important functions in soil conservation and rehabilitation of degraded land. The use of trees in soil conservation in combination with other rehabilitation methods has proven to be an effective strategy. Most degraded sites are the result of complex processes, which require an evaluation of the situation and analysis of the causes before formulation of mitigation plans. 2.2.4.1 Effective use of trees in conservation and rehabilitation of landThe selection and use of trees in land rehabilitation depends on the type and state of land degradation. For instance, areas affected by sheet erosion require a different approach as compared to gullies. In general, restoration of the vegetative cover is one of the most important solutions to the problem. Very often a combination of grasses, shrubs and trees is the most efficient and effective way of controlling degradation. Issue Communities do not effectively use trees in combination with other plant species in the protection and conservation of land. The reason is that communities have little experience and skills in the selection, management and use of trees and other plants for conservation and land rehabilitation. Policy Communities shall be trained in efficient use of trees in combination with other plant species in the conservation and rehabilitation of land. Forest Management Committees need to be organised and trained in community forestry applications to rehabilitate land, especially the technical and management aspects. The Ministry responsible for forestry, together with NGOs and other stakeholders, has a major role to play in the training of communities in rehabilitation of degraded land. Interventions through afforestation and reforestation require demonstration of applicable technology, with selection of suitable tree species and provision of seedlings (see also section 2.2.6). A relevant application would be enrichment planting, focusing on the use of valuable indigenous tree species such as Kiaat (Pterocarpus angolensis). 2.2.5 Communal rights and responsibilities in indigenous forest managementCommunity forestry does not only relate to planting of trees at homesteads, woodlots, agro-forestry or rehabilitation schemes but also to the use and responsibility for the management of the communal natural forests and woodlands. Community forestry is an important aspect of the overall management of natural forests and woodlands, but not the only one. Other policy aspects of a more general nature are covered in section 2.4 dealing with the management of forest and woodland resources on a national basis. This section focuses on specific elements related to community rights and responsibilities with regard to communal forest resources. 2.2.5.1 Communal responsibility for the management of indigenous forestsChiefs are officially responsible for the overall management of the communal forest and woodland reserves. However, community support and participation is needed to effectively manage the resources. Issue There is a lack of technical knowledge of sustainable forest management within communities and a lack of responsibility within the communities to manage the community forest. Policy Communities must be provided with technical knowledge and empowered to take full responsibility for the sustainable management of their own forest resources. Community empowerment within their Chiefdoms is best achieved through the establishment of Forest Management Committees, which should work in close co-operation with the existing community traditional structures. Education and training of local leadership, traditional healers and general community members in sustainable management of forests as a community property is a precondition to empowerment. Relevant institutions such as the Ministry responsible for forestry have an important role to play in this process. 2.2.5.2 Ownership and user rightsThe rights to use communal forests and the distribution of benefits to individuals are not always clear and satisfactory. Issue There is a lack of agreement and definition with respect to ownership and user rights of communal indigenous forests and woodlands. Policy Detailed rules and regulations covering the access and user rights to forest resources as well as the responsibilities of communities and their individual members towards management of communal forest resources must be agreed to and defined. The envisaged Forest Management Committees should be encouraged and empowered by the traditional authorities to negotiate relevant forest management matters with all stakeholders, in order to establish rights and responsibilities, and formulate rules with respect to the use and management of communal forest resources. Regulations emanating from these negotiations should include detailed arrangements with regard to maintenance of the forest resources and the extraction of forest products. The Ministry responsible for forestry has to administer, manage and monitor implementation and operation. The responsible Ministry should also control adherence to the institutional arrangements and the rules and regulations as defined and agreed by all stakeholders. 2.2.6 Services to support community forestryThe recognition of the importance of community forestry is only recent, and specific support has been rather insufficient or inappropriate so far. 2.2.6.1 Effective services to community forestryThe sustainable development of community forestry is one of the key areas in forestry, and requires to be given adequate focus and support. Issue Forestry support and extension services have been insufficiently directed towards improving local community capacity to develop forestry activities and manage communal forest and woodland reserves. The main reason has been the insufficient resources to provide such services. Policy The attention of forest support services shall focus on community forestry as one of the key forestry areas. The services apply to all of the aspects of community forestry as mentioned in the previous policy sections. Forestry services, as provided by government agencies or NGOs, need to be enhanced and co-ordinated by the Ministry responsible for forestry. Available government resources should be evaluated and strengthened. The required services include the following:
2.3 Urban forestryThe importance of retaining green belts and open spaces as part of the urban and peri-urban environment is acknowledged in the Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP). Forests are an important part of these green belts, which improve the quality of life. Urban forestry can enhance degraded urban environments, through trees and plants in private gardens, parks and other public places in cities and towns, as well as conserve valuable natural forests and woodlands in the peri-urban zone. Urban forestry can provide a variety of economic, social and environmental benefits to all inhabitants. However, there is currently a lack of integrated planning, and local authorities in urban areas only have limited capacity to deal with the urban forestry issue and its implications. 2.3.1 Planning of forestry in urban and peri-urban zones2.3.1.1 The functions and benefits of urban forestryTrees and forests in urban and peri-urban environments, which include wattle forests, parks and natural riverine forests in aquatic environments, provide a range of benefits, such as: Economic benefits from home consumption or sale of products such as timber, fuelwood, fruit, food, and other wood, non-wood and plant materials for a variety of purposes. Social benefits such as the aesthetic value, improved health and well being, amenity, shade, shelter, and opportunities for recreation. Environmental benefits such as improved micro-climate, noise reduction, better control of disposed waste water and the overall hydrological balance, and conservation of biodiversity and important habitats. Issue The importance and benefits of the economic, social and environmental functions of urban forestry are presently not sufficiently recognised. The current situation shows a lack of initiatives to retain or develop areas of forest or open green space within urban and peri-urban environments. Policy Sustainable urban forests and other green areas, such as parks, sports areas, greenways and areas reserved for agricultural use, must be developed and retained as long as possible for the benefit of all, and incorporated in the overall urban functions. There is a need to more precisely define open space and green areas, as there is a lack of definition of these terms used in the Urban Government Policy of 1996. 2.3.1.2 Green belts and special habitats as protected urban areasForests, wetlands, open spaces and other green areas representing special habitats are particularly vulnerable in urban environments. Issue There is presently not sufficient attention and interest to declare important natural habitats within the urban zone as protected areas. The new Flora Protection Act of 2001 provides the necessary means to adequately protect important habitats. Policy Green belts, wetlands and other special habitats within the urban and peri-urban zone shall be declared as protected biodiversity conservation and recreation areas. It is essential to identify important habitats in an early stage of peri-urban development, when the tenure system of most peri-urban land is still Swazi Nation Land (SNL). Once the land has been declared urban, the City Council should recommend protected urban areas. The Ministry responsible for housing and urban development has the authority to declare open spaces and protected areas as part of the urban zone, and transfer the management of these areas to local authorities. Practical applications with respect to protecting important habitats could include:
2.3.1.3 Planning of urban and peri-urban green belts and forested areasIt is important to integrate healthy and environmentally sound forestry and agricultural activities into the planning of urban areas. The general strategic approach as proposed by the Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP) is to ensure the formulation and strict enforcement of Structure Plans as stipulated by the Urban Government Policy of 1996, incorporating green belt, agricultural and recreational land as permanent features of urban areas. Issue There is currently a lack of co-ordinated planning for urban forestry, which would require integrated and holistic land use planning in an early stage of urban development in order to minimise conflict of interest amongst stakeholders. Lack of co-ordinated planning also applies to the municipal services and parastatals. Some parastatals apply drastic tree cutting programmes to protect, maintain and expand their supply lines. Policy Urban forestry must be incorporated into urban development plans, to ensure implementation of structural plans incorporating green belts, agricultural and recreational land as well as permanent urban forest areas for the urban and peri-urban population. There is a need to strengthen management capacities of local authorities to monitor green areas, inclusive of privatisation of some activities, and the education and co-operation of law enforcement organisations. Co-operation between relevant ministries and parastatals is required, following the provisions of the Urban Government Policy of 1996 and the recommendations of the draft Peri-urban Growth Policy of 1997. 2.3.1.4 Community participation in urban forestry planningThe current situation is that most people are unaware of the importance of urban forestry. Issue Participation of urban and peri-urban dwellers in the planning and management of urban trees and forests and other green areas is hardly existing. Policy The regulations of town and city planning, as well as those for peri-urban areas have to include community participation in the planning and implementation of urban forestry and other green zones. To prepare for successful community participation in urban and peri-urban forestry planning, there is a need to set up educational programmes to promote the use and value of trees and other green areas and develop relevant strategies for planning and implementation. Community organisations, the corporate sector and individuals should co-operate with the local authorities and NGOs and participate in planning, implementation and maintenance of urban forests in order to:
2.3.2 Management of urban and peri-urban forestry2.3.2.1 Control of trees and forests in urban landGovernment controls and manages most land within the urban boundaries and makes unilateral decisions with respect to planning and use. Local authorities manage urban areas, but are currently not empowered to plan and implement initiatives such as development of parks and urban forestry. Issue There are presently many conflicts in urban land utilisation and development, in particular between economic and environmental interests. These conflicts are primarily caused by lack of clarity of control and by different views and intentions by Government on one hand, and town and city councils on the other. Policy All parties in urban areas have to comply with existing legislation, which stipulate ownership rights and management responsibilities. Such legislation includes the Swaziland Environment Authority Act of 1992 - in particular the Environmental Audit, Assessment and Review Regulations 2000 - and the Control of Tree Planting Act of 1972. Applying the Regulations 2000, changes in land use may require an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Apart from application of existing legislation, there is a need for improving working relationships between Government and local authorities in the planning and implementing of urban development, in particular urban forestry. The role of the Ministry responsible for forestry is essential in this regard. 2.3.2.2 Development of management capability and capacityManagement capability is a prerequisite for sustainable urban forestry development. Issue There is currently insufficient management capacity and capability to plan, manage and monitor urban forests and green areas. Policy Clear responsibilities and capabilities shall be established for the management of urban forests between relevant government ministries, urban and peri-urban authorities and other stakeholders. There is a need to strengthen the management capacity of local urban and peri-urban authorities with respect to urban forestry. The Ministry responsible for forestry should provide technical advice and co-ordinate urban forestry activities and management amongst stakeholders. 2.4 Natural forests and woodlandsConcerns with regard to the current status of forest and woodland resources in Swaziland revolve around management issues. The growing population is putting more pressure on the scarce indigenous forest resources and the use of forests by communities is apparently no longer sustainable. Plant resources are further diminished by uncontrolled commercial activities through sales and export. There is evidence that the forest resources of Swaziland are being depleted through export of specific forest products, notably medicinal plants, to neighbouring countries. As a result, many of the forests and woodlands have been degraded. It is essential to address the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation and to formulate strategies to protect and conserve the forest resources. Key management issues are addressed in section 2.4.1, focusing on introducing sustainable management of the natural forest and woodlands. Section 2.4.2 identifies areas where commercial utilisation of forests can be improved, whereas section 2.4.3 highlights the valuation of non-timber forest products. Section 2.4.4 presents policy statements on energy matters, section 2.4.5 on cultural aspects, section 2.4.6 on promotion of tourism, and section 2.4.7 on conservation of biodiversity. Most sections contain important policy elements that focus on community involvement and management options for improving rural livelihood. 2.4.1 Key management aspects of natural forests and woodlandsManagement of natural forests and woodlands remains the most important forestry issue in Swaziland that needs to be addressed now and in the future. This section highlights some of the key aspects of sustainable forest management. 2.4.1.1 Current management of the natural forests and woodlandsThere is general agreement that the increasing degradation of the forest resources is caused by unsustainable exploitation of forest and woodlands, especially the communal resources, but to some extent also private and state managed land. Issue The natural forests and woodlands of Swaziland are not managed in a sustainable way. The main causes are the lack of clear and comprehensive understanding of sustainable forest management, and the lack of the means to implement sustainable management. Policy Sustainable forest management systems must be fully developed and introduced to communities and all other stakeholders, based on agreed national criteria and indicators. The national criteria and indicators - following the Dry Zone Africa Process - that have been defined and adopted by the Ministry responsible for forestry must be introduced to all stakeholders (see Appendix 3). Introducing community-based management is a key element in the process, whereby communities have to be made aware of alternative uses of forest resources. Communities have to organise themselves in Forest Management Committees, but need technical and financial support (see also sections 2.2.4 to 2.2.6). Hence there is a strong requirement for collaborative or joint management, in which the roles of Government and NGOs have to be defined, including measures to enhance co-operation. 2.4.1.2 Underlying causes of forest degradationIdentification and study of the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation is a world-wide priority and its understanding forms an essential precondition for the introduction of sustainable forest management. Underlying causes include the following:
Issue Although most of the underlying causes of deforestation are recognised, there is lack of application of suitable measures to address the issues. There is no full and detailed understanding of the complex relationships between the underlying causes. Most of the causes refer to socio-economic conditions and attitudes, and they are related to one single major cause, namely the strong population growth, which takes place without corresponding increase of responsibility, adequate control, enforceable rules and regulations, and conservation of the forests and woodlands. Policy Remedial measures shall be developed and promoted to mitigate the underlying causes of forest degradation, which requires further identification and study, including analysis of the impact on the status of the forest resources. The full understanding of the underlying causes and their effects is a critical element in the process of introducing sustainable forest management. 2.4.1.3 Management of forest firesThe use of fire in Swaziland is recognised as an efficient tool in the management of natural forests and rangelands. Most of the burning that takes place in the natural woodlands intends to improve grazing conditions. However, there is evidence that uncontrolled and random fires result in destruction of natural forest resources and loss of biodiversity. There is no full understanding of the effects of the fire regimes occurring in Swaziland. Fires tend to favour certain species to the detriment of others and reduce overall diversity. Uncontrolled fires caused by strained social relations between forest companies and neighbouring communities also affect industrial forestry (see section 2.1.1.3). Issue There is an overall lack of control of fire in natural forests, woodlands and rangelands. The lack of control is excarbated by insufficient understanding of the effects of fire on forest and veld conditions. Uncontrolled and unwanted fires that have started in one particular type of land may affect other neighbouring land. There are currently no regulations to compel neighbouring land users and landowners, whether on communal or private land, to jointly fight uncontrolled forest and veld fires. Policy Sustainable fire management practices for the different land uses in Swaziland must be developed, implemented and promoted based on national and external research information, including the prevention and fighting of unwanted fires. Educational programmes, revision of the current Grass Fires Act of 1955, establishment of a National Fire Prevention Body and development of a national fire statistics database should be part of the strategy to achieve an effective management and control system of forest and veld fires. Local Fire Prevention Units should be established in all Chiefdoms and on all private farms. Such bodies should develop fire prevention and fire fighting strategies, in close co-operation with neighbouring land users and the traditional and national authorities. These units should form part of the community Forest Management Committees (see section 2.2.5) and operate as one body to administer, manage, monitor, and co-ordinate all forest and forest fire matters. 2.4.1.4 Valuation and natural resource accounting of forest and woodland resourcesNatural resources in general are currently considered to be of very little value by most people, and only worth the value of products extracted. Issue The general lack of awareness of the actual value of natural resources is one of the major causes of inadequate management and resulting degradation of the forest and woodland resources. Policy Natural resource accounting (NRA) in forestry and promotion of proper valuation of forest resources will be further developed and applied in order to establish the true value of forests. The recently introduced natural resource accounting (NRA) in Swaziland is an important tool for determining the value of the forest resource and improving its competitive position with respect to other land uses. Together with Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and resource rent introduction, NRA should be part of the routine planning exercise to protect forests from unwanted land conversion (see also sections 2.1.5.2 and 2.4.7.3). Multiple use of forests and woodlands such as for conservation and tourism will add value and sustain management, especially with communities involved (see also sections 2.4.3 and 2.4.6). 2.4.2 Commercial management aspects of natural forests and woodlandsApart from the sustainable aspect of the management of the natural forests and woodlands (see previous section 2.4.1), there is also the commercial aspect. Commercial management of natural woodlands and forests for tourism, conservation and other purposes has traditionally been left to the private organisations and parastatals, such as the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC) and the Big Game Parks. However, in many parts of the country, the forests and natural beauty of the landscape have not yet been commercially exploited. Forest and woodland resources can be used in a more commercial approach of exploitation, however on a sustainable basis, such as:
All these areas of forest utilisation need to be investigated with respect to markets and sustainability. It may be that certain areas of exploitation are not to be recommended. 2.4.2.1 Improving commercial use and management of communal forest resourcesAt the present moment there is little commercial use of communal forest resources Issue Opportunities to improve rural community livelihood by commercial and sustainable exploitation of forest resources are not sufficiently explored or made available. Traditional leaders manage communal areas and anyone wishing to harvest products from the communal forest requires their permission. Access to forest resources is one of the forest policy principles (see sections 1.4 and 2.2.5.2). The present situation is that often no charge is levied on persons from outside the chiefdom. Policy Traditional leaders and community members should explore the options for improving commercial and sustainable exploitation of the communal forest resources in order to improve their livelihoods. The main options are in the trade of forest products (section 2.4.3) and tourism (section 2.4.6). 2.4.2.2 Trade in forest products with proper valuationThere is concern that an increasing proportion of the revenue and benefits from harvested forest products is taken away by outside traders, at the expense of the benefits to the communities in control of the forest resources. Issue Current trade in natural forest products is uncontrolled and not sufficiently benefiting communities. Policy Communities must retain the control over their forest resources and take measures to remain the principal recipients of the revenue and benefits obtained from forest products. In order to ensure sustainable commercial activities within natural forests and woodlands a permit system should be introduced, controlled by the community Forest Management Committees. Communities need to be advised by the Ministry responsible for forestry and other relevant organisations with regard to proper valuation, marketing and management of their forest products. 2.4.2.3 Small processing industries based on forest productsAt present there is inadequate promotion and support to develop community-based industries. Issue Communities are not making efficient and economic use of forest products by setting up small processing industries. Policy The development of small sustainable industries specialising in the processing of natural forest and woodland products shall be encouraged and supported. Communities need to be advised on the options for small industries and the possibilities of financial and technical assistance. The main advantages of creating such industries, e.g. bee keeping, food collection and wood carving (see also section 2.4.3), are increased employment through additional labour inputs and raised revenue through value added to the forest product. 2.4.2.4 Community involvement in the management of protected areasCommunity involvement in the sustainable management of protected land is considered vital. Issue At the present moment there is little community involvement in the management of conserved and protected land. This relates not only to communal conservation areas, but also to involvement in national and other conservation areas, such as managed by the Swaziland National Trust Commission, Big Game Parks and private companies. Policy Community involvement in the establishment and management of protected areas for eco-tourism development or other purposes shall be encouraged and promoted. Such involvement would include collaborative management or co-management of forests and woodlands inside and outside protected areas, and should result in improved management and revenue generation for the community (see also section 2.4.7.6). 2.4.3 Valuation and use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)The undervaluing of forest products is a major contributor to over-exploitation of forests and woodlands. The most important 'free' non-timber forest product that is traded with impunity (and hence no taxes or other revenue to Government or the land user) is that of medicinal plants (see section 2.4.3.3). Fuelwood (see section 2.4.4) and woodcraft (see section 2.4.3.4) form other important categories. Other NTFPs include a wide variety of edible animal and plant products, bark and other tree products, grasses, reeds, etc., which are consumed by a large majority of the population. 2.4.3.1 The value of non-timber forest productsAt the present moment communities and other stakeholders are not fully aware and informed of the value of many NTFPs. Issue The value of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is not fully recognised and established in the national accounts of Swaziland. Policy The true value and importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to the national economy must be established and recognised in national planning and accounting. Research on valuation has been initiated and needs to be continued in a comprehensive way as part of national resource accounting. The communities and general public need to be informed about revised values of NTFPs. 2.4.3.2 Research into utilisation of non-timber forest productsThe current knowledge of the variety and scope of NTFPs in Swaziland is not sufficient for multiple use application, in particular in small community industries (see section 2.4.2.3). Issue The present species utilisation database of non-timber forest products is incomplete. Policy A comprehensive species utilisation database of non-timber forest products needs to be created, in conjunction with research into the wider occurrence and potential of NTFPs in Swaziland. In particular the area of medicinal plants needs to be investigated, with a focus on sustainable management status and commercialisation (see next section 2.4.3.3). 2.4.3.3 Medicinal plantsMedicinal plants are the most important group of non-timber forest products, in both the economic and social perspective. Based on the results from ethno-botanical surveys, Swaziland has a satisfactory documentation of the indigenous traditional medicinal flora, which is also very relevant to preservation of the natural heritage (see also section 2.4.5). Issue The uncontrolled and unsustainable extraction of medicinal plants currently taking place in forests and woodlands has resulted in depletion or critical levels of certain species. The current situation - which also applies to culturally important plants (see section 2.4.5) - is largely attributed to illegal trade and export of plants and is related to the general lack of proper value assigned to forest products (see section 2.4.1.4). Policy Medicinal plants must be protected by effective measures, to ensure that extraction and use will be sustainable and primarily aimed at satisfying local needs. Trade and export of medicinal plants from natural forests should be strictly controlled. Restrictions should be applied depending on the relative scarcity of the species and the viability of the population. Trade in endangered species should be prohibited. Harvesting from communal land should only take place by registered traditional healers and other authorised persons, through a licensing system obtained from the local authorities through the communal Forestry Management Committees. However, limited harvesting for personal and household use should be exempted. A corresponding permit system should be set up for private land. Growing of medicinal plants in gardens and nurseries should be promoted to alleviate the pressure on natural forests. 2.4.3.4 Indigenous tree species used for woodcraftA variety of indigenous plant species, such as Tamboti (Spirostachys africana) and Kiaat (Pterocarpus angolensis), is used for the production of woodcrafts as carvings, furniture, bowls and other utensils, both for domestic purposes and the tourist market. Issue Currently there is an uncontrolled over-exploitation and commercialisation of indigenous plant and tree species for the woodcraft market. Policy An inventory of indigenous species used for woodcraft should be compiled, and a re-planting programme of identified natural plant and tree species should be developed. To alleviate pressure on natural forests and woodlands, enrichment planting of selected species should be encouraged (see also sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.4). Also, the use of alternative exotic plant and tree species, e.g. Jacaranda, to make woodcrafts should be promoted. An identification, propagation, seedling production and distribution programme of alternative wood species needs to be established, including a marketing system. 2.4.4 The role of natural forests in the production of fuelwood and provision of energyForests and woodlands play an essential role as a source of energy. About 70 percent of rural households in Swaziland rely on fuelwood, and it is expected that this percentage will remain high for some time. Although estimates of fuelwood consumption are not consistent, there are indications that local shortages exist, notably in the Upper Middleveld and parts of the Lower Middleveld and Lowveld, in particular around dense settlements and arable areas. Also in urban areas fuelwood is still an important source of energy, mainly derived from rural areas. In general, the situation warrants a better control and management of the fuelwood resources. Natural forests and woodlands are not the only sources of fuelwood. An important part of the current fuelwood supply is harvested from private and communal wattle forests, however not always in a sustainable way (see section 2.2.2). Modest amounts are presently obtained from industrial plantation forests, but this supply has the potential to increase in the future (see section 2.1.2.3). Fuelwood from trees and forests within the urban and peri-urban environment also form an important source of energy, and this urban forestry function should be further stimulated (see section 2.3.1.1). Communal woodlots, which mainly consist of Eucalyptus species, contribute only minor amounts of fuelwood. In order to reduce the dependency on fuelwood, other sources of affordable energy need to be promoted. Such issues are addressed by the draft National Energy Policy Options Paper (1.5.2.7). 2.4.4.1 Estimate of the need for fuelwoodThe need for fuelwood depends on two factors, namely the demand and the supply. Issue There is general shortage of fuelwood, although estimates of fuelwood consumption are not consistent and vary widely. Also, estimates of annual wood volume increments appear not to be sufficiently accurate to determine a surplus or deficit of potential fuelwood supply. Policy Measures must be taken to ensure sustainable supply of fuelwood to meet needs of communities, based on a reliable and quantified estimate of fuelwood consumption and annual wood volume increments. There is a need for further research to calculate annual increments and both rural and urban fuelwood consumption rates more precisely, which requires adoption of a standard method. The Ministry responsible for forestry shall make a provisional identification of areas with a fuelwood deficit and assess the spatial distribution of such deficit areas. Areas identified should receive priority in the planning of afforestation. 2.4.4.2 Sustainable fuelwood production from natural forest resourcesThe main supply of fuelwood in the coming years will still have to come from the natural forests and woodlands, although the fuelwood policy aims at increasing the proportion of fuelwood from other sources (see the following section 2.4.4.3). Issue Introduction of a sustainable national fuelwood production is complicated by substantial differences in the extent and impact of wood extraction that exist between different regions and locations in Swaziland. The excessive extraction of fuelwood in areas with a shortage has led to locally degraded natural forests and woodlands. Policy Sustainable management strategies for fuelwood extraction from natural forests and woodlands must be based on assessment of extraction and regeneration in specific regional and local situations. The diverse national situation with respect to biomass and wood production needs to be assessed in terms of options for production and distribution. This information should be compared and linked with the analysis of surplus and deficit areas (section 2.4.4.1). 2.4.4.3 The balance between fuelwood from natural and other sourcesThe irregularly distributed sources of fuelwood in the country have led to situations where one place has an insufficient and unsustainable extraction of fuelwood from scarce natural resources, and another a surplus from ample sources of fuelwood. Issue There is an imbalance between sources of fuelwood in Swaziland, enhancing local shortage or surplus. Policy Trade in fuelwood and charcoal from indigenous species must be regulated and production of fuelwood from other sources must be developed and stimulated. Other sources of wood or energy have to relieve pressure from natural forests and woodlands. Several of the other fuelwood options have a crucial role to play at medium-term planning, before effects of long-term planning towards alternative energy sources are expected to make a real impact. Other sources of fuelwood and ways to increase supply and energy efficiency include the following:
These alternative sources of fuelwood do not all have the same potential and need to be evaluated. Fuel efficiency and alternative sources of energy are promoted by the draft National Energy Policy Options Paper (1.5.2.7). Distribution and transport are important factors that have to be taken into account, including opportunities for local entrepreneurs. 2.4.5 Cultural importance of forest resourcesMany indigenous plants and trees are of great cultural importance at all levels of the Swazi society, including the Royal household, and form part of the natural heritage. Some plants and trees are sacred and spiritual revered by all members of the community. Various indigenous plant and tree species are used for medicine, the building of homesteads, cattle kraals, Chief’s and Royal kraals, the making of warrior and ceremonial sticks, etc. Some of these plants and attributes are used in traditional and customary ceremonies such as the Incwala and the reed dance. 2.4.5.1 Supply of trees and plant materials essential for cultural purposesCulturally important plants and plant materials are used at certain times of the year for the different annual festivities and ceremonies, when regiments and Chiefdoms are commissioned to cut and deliver plant materials that are required. Certain plant species are now threatened or have become extinct. Issue There is an increasing depletion of certain tree and plant species that are indispensable in the Swazi culture and tradition. Unsustainable use of the indigenous forest resources is the main cause of depletion of trees and plants for cultural activities and ceremonies. Certain tree species are overexploited without being replaced through a re-planting programme. Policy Sustainable utilisation and rehabilitation practices must be introduced to ensure the availability of all culturally important tree and plant species for ceremonial, domestic and other uses important to maintaining the Swazi tradition. All culturally important plant and tree species should be inventoried and documented, and the information stored in databases. Documentation is already available with respect to the indigenous traditional medicinal flora (see section 2.4.3.3). A propagation and re-planting programme should be initiated and implemented by the Ministry responsible for forestry, with emphasis on enrichment planting. Community-based Forest Management Committees should be involved in programmes to protect culturally important trees and plants, in consultation with the traditional structures. The conservation of such plant species may also be enhanced in forest and flora reserves, protected special habitats and botanical gardens (see also section 2.4.7). 2.4.5.2 Spiritual needs and rights related to forest resourcesSpiritual needs and rights, together with indigenous knowledge systems (see section 2.4.7.2), form an essential part of the natural heritage. Issue The recognition of the spiritual needs and rights of local people, in particular traditional medical practitioners, is unsatisfactory. Policy The spiritual rights and needs of the traditional medical practitioners and other people must be respected and protected. Sustainable management of the forest resources is needed to meet the spiritual needs for the present and future generations (see also sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.3.3). 2.4.6 Forestry and tourismForests and woodlands are integral parts of the environment and overall physical landscape of Swaziland and its attractiveness to tourism. The contribution of forestry is essential to sustainable management of the natural resource base including wildlife and cultural heritage and hence to promotion of tourism in general, and eco-tourism in particular. 2.4.6.1 The value of natural forests and woodlands for forestry and tourismProminent and visible pollution, waste dumping and land degradation, which are occurring in the country, are not conducive to promoting tourism and eco-tourism. Issue As a result of forest degradation and lack of management, potentially attractive forest sites do currently not appeal to tourists. One of the reasons of the degradation is the insufficient public awareness of the value of the natural forests and woodlands for tourism. Policy A co-ordinated approach must be established to promote sustainable management of natural forests and woodlands for enhanced tourism and eco-tourism development. All stakeholders should be involved in co-ordinated planning and tourism development, including the private sector, government institutions, traditional authorities, communities and the Swaziland Tourism Authority (STA). The identification of protection-worthy areas and flora reserves for the dual purpose of tourism and conservation (see section 2.4.7.5) should be a priority planning issue. 2.4.6.2 Use of government controlled land for forestry and tourismGovernment, in particular the Ministry responsible for agriculture, controls and manages large farms and ranches. Several of these farms are found in prime locations with attractive scenery, significant forest resources and biological diversity. Some of these farms have a substantial potential to support forestry and tourism development. Issue Many of the farms and ranches controlled by Government are presently under-utilised, in particular with respect to the value of their forest resources. Government does not always have the capacity to manage these farms to their full potential. Policy Farms controlled by Government will be evaluated for forestry and tourism potential and further developed for such purposes, if considered suitable. Strategically positioned government farms with forestry development potential and unique biodiversity could very well form part of Biodiversity and Tourism Corridors (BTCs). 2.4.7 Conservation of the biodiversity of natural forest resourcesA general principle of conservation is that the ecological structure, function and dynamics of forests, including water, soil, and nutrient cycles, landforms, and micro-climate must be protected and maintained, or where degraded by past human activities, restored. The indigenous biological diversity of forests must be protected and maintained at all spatial scales and through all time frames. The conservation status in the currently protected areas of Swaziland is generally satisfactory, although the invasion of alien plant species and poaching are considered major problems. Government has the overall responsibility for the conservation of the natural forest and woodlands, but adequate conservation and management can only be achieved with active participation of communities and other stakeholders. 2.4.7.1 Preservation of genetic forest plant resourcesThe preservation of genetic plant resources, notably forest plant resources, is an essential element in the conservation of the natural forest resources. The conservation relates to unmodified plant material. Genetically modified tree species normally only play a role in the industrial forestry sector (see section 2.1.1.2.2). Issue There is presently insufficient conservation of genetic plant resources in Swaziland. Policy The value of conservation of genetic plant resources must be fully recognised and holistic planning must be pursued to ensure their conservation as integral part of development programmes. Important applications are found in the improvement of indigenous plant species. The conservation of the gene pool is the responsibility of the Swaziland National Herbarium, in collaboration with the National Tree Seed Centre, the National Plant Genetic Resources Centre and the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC). The documentation of genetic plant resources should take place through appropriate storage systems, indigenous flora inventory and preservation in protected areas and in botanical gardens. 2.4.7.2 Indigenous ecological knowledgeIndigenous knowledge systems are considered an essential element in the management of natural resources. The role of forests with respect to spiritual needs also forms part of the indigenous ecological knowledge and the natural heritage (see section 2.4.5.2). Issue Indigenous ecological knowledge systems are currently undervalued and not satisfactorily applied in conservation and rehabilitation programmes. There is also a concern with respect to copyright of indigenous knowledge systems. Policy The indigenous ecological knowledge of people in relation to forests must be recognised, respected, protected and applied as a critical element of defining ecologically responsible forest use. Conservation programmes must have a holistic approach, with the full involvement of communities. For instance, indigenous ecological knowledge systems should be integrated in educational conservation programmes for communities. As a matter of principle, the copyright of published traditional knowledge systems must be recognised and protected. The Convention on Biological Diversity (1.7.2 ) clearly recognises the importance of intellectual property rights. 2.4.7.3 Threats to biodiversityMajor threats to biodiversity in Swaziland include encroachment of alien plants, the herbivory regime, the fire regime (see section 2.4.1.3), frequent drought and unsustainable exploitation of forests and woodlands (see section 2.4.1.1). Land conversion to agriculture, infrastructure and resettlement is also a threat to biodiversity (see also section 2.4.1.4). 2.4.7.3.1 Lack of knowledge and public awareness raisingToday, there is a wide recognition of the importance and value of biological diversity. But much more is needed to increase public awareness of the importance of biological diversity with the ultimate goal of stopping the ever-increasing loss. Issue Available information and public awareness of existing threats to biodiversity in Swaziland are insufficient. Policy The knowledge base of threats to biodiversity must be expanded and public awareness has to be raised about these threats. Further studies are required to increase the information of threats to biodiversity and awareness programmes need to be developed to inform the general public. Reference in this context is made to the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (see section 1.5.1.5). 2.4.7.3.2 Development of programmes to address threats to biodiversityThere is a need to implement programmes to address the major issues, such as to control invasive alien species (see next section 2.4.7.3.3), to control exploitation of certain endangered species, to control veld fires and to reduce overstocking and overgrazing. Issue Current programmes to address the threats to biodiversity are insufficient. Policy Programmes to control and eliminate threats to biodiversity must be pursued and prioritised. Such programmes need to be developed in conjunction with the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (see section 1.5.1.5). Essential in this context is also that Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Natural Resource Accounting (NRA) be fully introduced to alleviate the threat to biodiversity loss through land conversion. 2.4.7.3.3 Control of invasive alien plant speciesInvasive alien species are considered to be the most important threat to biological diversity loss after habitat destruction. All ecosystems, including forests and grasslands, are vulnerable to invasive alien species. Harmful alien plant species frequently recorded in Swaziland include Lantana camara, Sesbania punicea, Solanum mauritianum (bugweed), Caesalpinea decapetala (Mauritian thorn), Pathenium hystorophorus, Chromoleana odorata (triffid weed), Rubus spp, Cassia spp, Opuntia imbricata (prickly pear), Psidium guajava (guava). Other imported tree genus, such as Acacia, Eucalyptus, Pinus and others may also be invasive, unless properly managed in plantations. Issue There are currently no comprehensive programmes to address the issue of invasive alien plant species in Swaziland. There is a huge body of information available, notably in South Africa and elsewhere where control and eradication programmes have started, using a variety of methods, including mechanical cleaning, the use of herbicides and biological control. Policy Integrated programmes to control invasive alien plant species shall be developed and implemented. Development and execution of these programmes requires close co-operation of the Ministry responsible for forestry with the National Biodiversity Steering Committee (under the Swaziland Environment Authority), the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC) and liaison with Plant Protection and Research Institutes in South Africa. The Plant Control Act of 1981 needs to be reviewed and enforced, in particular to prevent the importation of unwanted alien plant species. 2.4.7.4 Coverage and size of biodiversity conservation areas in SwazilandAbout four percent of Swaziland can be classified as conservation areas, with tourism and biodiversity conservation as the primary objectives. The size of the protected areas is an important factor in conserving biodiversity. However, all of the individual conservation areas of Swaziland are relatively small, namely less than 20 000 ha. Issue The conservation areas in Swaziland are too small and do not adequately cover all of the important habitats to avoid future unwanted changes and fully maintain biodiversity. Not all of the important habitats are included in protected zones. In view of international protocols, which recommends ten percent of each vegetation type to be protected, Swaziland should carefully select an additional six percent of representative conservation areas, above the present four percent. Enlargement of conservation areas is expected to have a positive impact on tourism development (see section 2.4.6). Policy The coverage and size of protected areas in Swaziland must be enlarged in order to satisfactorily conserve and maintain biodiversity and important habitats for present and future generations. Scale enlargement of conservation areas is considered essential to compete in the regional eco-tourism market. Advantage has to be taken from existing national and regional initiatives to consolidate and enlarge conservation areas. The development and implementation of plans for optimal placement, establishment and management of representative conservation areas in Swaziland should be given high priority and adequate support (see next section 2.4.7.5). The main management categories identified and proposed as being of relevance to Swaziland are Community Managed Protected Areas, National Forest Reserves, National Flora Reserves and National Parks. 2.4.7.5 Identification and selection of flora protection areasThe identification of flora protection areas as part of the overall protection-worthy areas (PWAs) is an essential step to enhance and consolidate the comprehensive conservation of the biodiversity of the forest and other natural resources of Swaziland. PWAs have already been assessed during the 1970s, and have recently been re-evaluated. The focus of conservation has changed over these years from a general ecosystem approach towards biodiversity conservation and eco-tourism development (see section 2.4.6). Issue There is a need for a comprehensive identification and selection of protection-worthy areas (PWAs), including forest and flora reserves. The 2001 Flora Protection Act provides guidelines. A selection procedure based on a scientifically founded methodology is currently not available in Swaziland. Policy Additional forest and flora protection areas as part of overall of protection-worthy areas (PWAs) must be defined, proclaimed and properly managed. Identification and selection of flora and other protection-worthy areas (PWAs) must be carried out on the basis of a suitable and scientifically founded methodology, with special emphasis on the definition of the criteria for determining the priority for conservation, and taking into account current capability available in Swaziland. Attention should particularly be given to habitats currently underrepresented as protection areas, such as wetlands and hill and mountain forests and woodlands (see next sections 2.4.7.6 and 2.4.7.7) Vegetation classification systems used in identification of PWAs need to be reviewed and refined, taking into account the existing Agro-ecological Zoning of Swaziland as well as vegetation classification and mapping previously applied. Detailed biodiversity surveys - with a focus on species richness and endemism – and socio-economic surveys should be conducted as part of the selection method within all the potential new PWAs. 2.4.7.6 Protection of wetlandsNatural wetlands in Swaziland are found as integral part of various ecosystems consisting of plantation forest, natural forest and woodland, cultivated and grazing land, as well as residential and urban areas. Wetlands are a natural resource that is often neglected or given low value or no value at all. As a result of this inadequate recognition, wetlands remain largely unprotected and threatened. Many of the small wetlands, which include swampy and marshy areas, have been degraded or have been converted to farmland and areas of settlement. The Natural Resources Act of 1951 and the Control of Tree Planting Act of 1972 provide to some extent legal protection of wetlands. Regulations emanating from these Acts relate to protection of river and stream bank vegetation in a 30m wide strip along streams. The majority of the wetlands in Swaziland however, in particular the smaller ones, are not protected and are only inadequately conserved. The 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, of which Swaziland is not a signatory, defines wetlands as areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt. It recognizes wetlands as having a fundamental ecological function as regulators of water regimes and as habitats supporting a characteristic flora and fauna, as well as constituting a resource of great economic, cultural, scientific and recreational value, the loss of which would be irreparable. The Ramsar Convention calls for concerted national efforts to prevent and control the encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future through proper protection and adequate conservation measures. Issue There is concern that the wetland areas of Swaziland are not adequately protected and conserved, and hence have lost their beneficial value. Many wetlands have been fragmented, degraded and encroached by other land uses. Policy The wetlands of Swaziland shall be protected, conserved and managed to provide socio-economic, cultural, scientific, recreational and environmental benefits to the society. Government should formulate strategies to protect, conserve and manage wetlands in support of sustainable development. Wetlands in Swaziland have to be identified, surveyed and mapped so that their present status is known and their future potential and use can be evaluated. The Swaziland Environment Authority, as the coordinating institution for environmental issues, should play a leading role in ensuring that wetlands are protected and conserved, following the guidelines as provided by the Ramsar Convention. The Ministry responsible for forestry should provide technical support for the protection and conservation of the wetland resources, in collaboration with other relevant government institutions, parastatals, NGOs and the private sector. 2.4.7.7 Protection and conservation of hill and mountain forests and woodlandsThere is currently no adequate protection of the various hill and mountain forests and woodlands in Swaziland. The fragile hill and mountain ecosystems contain unique habitats with specific grassland, woodland and forest flora and fauna, including valuable riparian and riverine environments. However, most of the vegetation on steep hill and mountain slopes is found in a degraded form, caused by excessive grazing. Only minor mountain areas are protected as wildlife sanctuaries and reserves. The degradation and erosion is mainly due to overstocking and excessive cattle traffic to dip-tanks, watering points and night kraals. Issue There is concern that the hill and mountain forests and woodlands, including grasslands and unique riparian and riverine flora, are not adequately protected and conserved. A large proportion of the hill and mountain vegetation in Swaziland is found in a serious state of degradation and erosion. Policy Natural hill and mountain forests and woodlands, including riparian, riverine and grassland vegetation, shall be protected, conserved and properly managed. The prevalent land use of livestock grazing on hills and mountains should be reviewed. Government should design a new strategy to improve the livestock management system in hills and mountains in order to minimize the impact of grazing in these ecosystems. The Ministry responsible for forestry and flora should take the leading role in ensuring that forests and woodlands on hills and mountains are protected and managed in a sustainable way. Appropriate in-situ conservation, enrichment planting and afforestation practices should be pursued where necessary, based on careful selection of suitable areas for such improvements and taking into account other land uses. Adequate collaboration and coordination is required between relevant government institutions, parastatals, NGOs and the private sector. 2.4.7.8 Management of future protection areasAppropriate management of future protected forest and flora reserves, including wetlands and hill and mountain forests (see sections 2.4.7.6 and 2.4.7.7), as part of overall biodiversity conservation areas is an essential element in the enlargement of protected area in Swaziland. Issue There is concern that the present conservation management capacity in Swaziland is not sufficient to manage additional protected forest and flora reserves in the near future. Policy The current conservation management capacity and capability with respect to forest and flora reserves must be assessed and evaluated, taking into account alternative management and operation options to enlarge the scope of conservation. Following present mandates, the Swaziland National Trust Commission (SNTC) has the responsibility to manage National Parks. The Ministry responsible for forestry should manage the proposed National Forest and Flora Reserves (see section 2.4.7.4). In the planning for innovative management systems, emphasis should be given to the development of Community-managed Protected Areas. Such areas should be managed by community-based organisations (CBOs) in co-operation with relevant government institutions, parastatals and NGOs. 3 INSTITUTIONAL, LEGAL AND PLANNING ARRANGEMENTS3.1 Institutional framework3.1.1 The role of GovernmentGovernment has the responsibility to formulate and implement policy and legislation to direct and guide national development, including spatial planning and meeting the needs and interests of citizens. Competing interests must have a framework for harmonisation. Further, Government has to provide an enabling environment to enhance sustainable utilisation and development of the country’s natural resources to improve peoples livelihoods. In this regard, the Government has through different national planning frameworks and initiatives, formulated development programmes aimed at improving and sustaining livelihoods of her people. Among these are the National Development Strategy (NDS) and the Economic and Social Reform Agenda (ESRA) which provide the framework and basis for a sustainable national development. These define the role of stakeholders recognising the private sector as the engine of economic growth as well as accepting the responsibilities of Government in enhancing the quality of life of her citizens in a sustainable manner. Accepting these as the fundamental premises, the government’s role in forest management should be:
3.1.2 Institutional requirementsThe recent developments in forestry, which are found outlined in national development strategies and plans, necessitate forestry institutions to provide a wide range of expertise and services, for which current provisions are not adequate. Constraints in the organisational structure of the current government forestry institution have a negative impact on management of forests and other natural resources. The need for expansion, upgrading, transfer to another ministry, and other institutional matters regarding the current forestry institution have been discussed over the past ten years, and were recently again reviewed. Some relevant recommendations to improve the situation include the following:
Recognising the importance of forest management in matters such as biodiversity conservation and tourism development, it appears that arguments supporting the importance of holistic forest management are gaining in strength. It is imperative to first define the functions of the forestry institutions and services required to implement a National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP) in accordance with the National Forest Policy, and then determine the necessary institutional changes required for implementation of the Programme. 3.2 National Forest Action ProgrammeThe issues and policy statements identified in chapter 2 of the National Forest Policy indicate a need for a National Forest Action Programme (NFAP). The main purpose of a NFAP is to identify the priority problems and corresponding plans for action. The NFAP must include the following functions:
The formulation of the action plans of the NFAP will necessitate the establishment of an institution to manage the implementation. The functions and services required from the Ministry responsible for forestry and other institutions need to be evaluated in order to determine the necessary institutional changes (see previous section 3.1.2). 3.3 Human resource development and educationHuman resource development required for the execution of forestry action plans is indicated in Appendix 5. Appendix 5 also provides suggestions for training and formal education in forestry. It is important to note that forestry should transcend through the national education system in order to achieve its sustainable management and development. 3.4 ResearchResearch requirements and institutional research arrangements related to forest policy implementation are discussed in Appendix 5. 3.5 Information and data managementInformation relevant to forestry development and forest policy implementation falls basically into two categories. The first relates to direct information on the status and use of the forest resources, of which the most essential is the forest resource assessment. The second category relates to general information relevant to forestry, such as data on land, water, climate and the environment in general. Proper data management is an essential element of the information base. Appendix 4 provides an overview of information requirements relevant to implementation of forest policy and action programme and plans. 3.6 Transboundary concernsThere are presently considerable transboundary concerns related to forestry, inter alia forest fires, illegal trade in forest products, pollution, biodiversity conservation, invasion of harmful alien plant species and international law enforcement. These and other problems need to be addressed with a view to reducing and combating their impacts on the natural resource base and their effects on the economy of the country. This is particularly important, as ecological boundaries do not always conform to political boundaries. The Government of Swaziland shall address these issues in recognition of regional and international initiatives and agreements and in co-operation with neighbouring countries. 3.7 Legal framework3.7.1 Status of existing forestry related legislationThe legislation dealing explicitly with forests and forestry share the main shortcomings of the legal framework for environmental management in general in Swaziland. Present legislation as examined by experts is viewed as incomplete, largely outdated and inaccessible, and in addition fragmented and in some cases overlapping. In general, there is inadequate enforcement of environmental and forestry laws. It is clear that legislative changes will be necessary within the National Forest Policy, which ideally should be constituted by a comprehensive New Forest Act replacing outdated, fragmented and incomplete legislation. There is a need to review and update existing forestry related Acts with the assistance of national legislative structures in order to streamline and harmonise them to ensure that they reflect sustainable forest management. Clear definition of roles and responsibilities in terms of implementation and enforcement of forest policy and legislation must also be agreed upon. 3.7.2 Provisions needed in new forest legislationWith respect to common or communal forests, a New Forest Act should provide for constitutional protection for common property and protection of trees from regulations that undermine the security of tenure, both communal and individual. The Act should also pay attention to the aspect of shared or co-management between the Government and communities and the possibility of delegation of control over forest resources. Furthermore, a New Forest Act should outline the relationship with other related Acts, recognise international conventions and obligations, and adopt international norms and standards. APPENDIX 1 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING LEGISLATION RELEVANT TO FORESTRYThe Forest Preservation Act 14/1910 This Act makes provision for the preservation of trees and forests growing on government land and on Swazi Nation Land (SNL). The Safeguarding of Swazi Areas Act 39/1910 This is an Act to make provision for the protection of the rights of the Swazi people to areas set apart under the Concessions Partition Act 28/1907 for their sole and exclusive use and occupation. The Definition of Swazi Areas Act 41/1916 This Act is to record the description of the areas set apart under the Concessions Partition Act 28/1907, and to declare and determine the conditions and restrictions subject to which the Swazi people are entitled to the sole and exclusive use and occupation of such areas. The Natural Resources Act 71/1951 This Act is to provide for the conservation and improvements of the natural resources and for other matters incidental thereto. The Private Forests Act 3/1951 This is an Act to provide for the better regulation and protection of private forests in Swaziland. The Game Act 51/1953 This Act is relevant to forestry insofar as it allows the enclosure and preservation of areas for wild animals. The King’s Order-in-Council 4/1954 This Order is for providing the appointment of a Central Rural Development Board and setting out its functions and duties. The Grass Fires Act 44/1955 This Act stipulates that the burning of grass, or other vegetation, on land not cultivated or required for cultivation requires the issue of a permit from the Director of Agriculture. The Wattle Bark Control Act 38/1960 This Act is meant to control the production, sale, grading and processing of wattle bark. It provides prohibition against stripping of immature bark, and stripping of wattle trees less than eight years old. The Control of Tree Planting Act 7/1972 This is an Act to provide for the control of the planting of certain trees grown for commercial purposes in specified areas, and for matters incidental thereto. The Swaziland National Trust Commission Act 9/1972 This is an Act to provide for the operation of cultural institutions and the proclamation of national parks, monuments and matters incidental thereto. The Factories, Machinery and Construction Works Act 17/1972 This Act provides for the technical and safety standards with respect to factories and construction works, including administration, machinery, use of electricity, boilers and pressure vessels. The Act sets out general safety and fire precautions, regulations related to health and welfare, and rules with respect to intoxicated persons. The Plant Control Act 8/1981 This Act is concerned with the prevention of plant disease, the regulation of the import and export of plants and the control of the mushroom industry. The Act also controls the spread of noxious weeds, insects in timber and brown and red locusts. The Swaziland Environment Authority Act 15/1992 and Environment Management Bill of 2001 This Act makes provision for the establishment of the Swaziland Environment Authority, its functions, powers and composition. Important Regulations have been added in 2000. The Environment Management Bill is to replace the Swaziland Environment Authority Act. The Human Settlements Authority Act 13/1992 This Act will apply to such human settlements, housing schemes and private housing schemes in such areas as the Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, declare to be subject to the provisions of the Act, but shall not, without the written approval of the King either generally, or in any particular case, apply to any land vested in the Ngwenyama in trust for the Swazi Nation or to a Swazi Area as defined in the Safeguarding of Swazi Areas Act 1910 and the Definition of Swazi Areas Act 1917. The Swaziland Investment Promotion Act 1/1998 This is an Act to provide for the promotion of investment in Swaziland and the establishment of an Investment Promotion Authority and for matters incidental thereto. The Swazi Administration Order 6/1998 This order is an order in council to provide the incorporation of the law governing appointment, removal and functions of Chiefs and Tindvuna into the law relating to the administration of Swazi Affairs. It repeals the 1950 Act. The Industrial Relations Act 1/2000 and the Industrial Relations (Amendment) Act 8/2000 This is an Act to provide for the collective negotiation of terms and conditions of employment and for the provision of dispute regulation mechanisms and for matters incidental thereto. The Amendment is to amend and incorporate certain international labour practices. The Flora Protection Act 5/2001 This is an Act to protect indigenous flora and to provide for matters incidental thereto. This Act prohibits any person from plucking, gathering, cutting, uprooting, injuring, breaking or destroying a plant of any species that is listed in the Schedule to the Act. APPENDIX 2 FORESTRY-RELATED INTERNATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND CONVENTIONSA The International Forestry PrinciplesThe set of Forest Principles emanating from UNCED Agenda 21, entitled "Non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests", deal with all basic aspects of forestry. The International Forest Principles particularly relevant to Swaziland are:
B International conventionsSwaziland has ratified the following relevant international conventions: The International Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Enforceable worldwide from 22 May 1992 and ratified by Swaziland on 9 November 1994. The objectives of this Convention are to conserve biological diversity, to promote the sustainable use of its components, and to encourage equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of utilisation of genetic resources. Swaziland’s implementation of this Convention is under the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) Signed by Swaziland on 27 July 1995, and ratified on 7 October 1996. All signatories to this Convention have committed themselves to sustainable development, the use of partnerships through an integrated approach and international co-operation towards combating desertification and combating the effects of drought. Those who have ratified, like Swaziland, have embarked upon the formulation of National Action Programmes. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Signed by Swaziland on 12 June 1992, and ratified on 7 October 1996. This Framework Convention recognises the role of net changes of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere as triggers of climate change, and attempts to address the issue. Swaziland’s response is addressed in studies on climate vulnerability and its relationship with forests and ecosystems. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) Ratified by Swaziland on 24 January 1997. This Convention controls the international movement of flora and fauna. While this convention has recently been embroiled in controversy over the banning of the ivory trade, its powers also extend to flora, including trees. For example, trade in trees endangered by the timber industry to the extent of the mahogany and teak forests of the past can now be limited under this convention. The African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Adopted in Algiers, signed by Swaziland on 15 September 1968, and ratified on 7 April 1969. The objectives of this Convention, namely to encourage individual and joint action for the conservation, utilisation and development of the environment for the present and future welfare of mankind from an economic, nutritional, scientific, educational, cultural and aesthetic point of view, are still very far from being accomplished on the continent. The Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community Signed at Abuja on 29 June 1992, and enforced on 12 May 1994. The objective of this Treaty relevant to forestry is to ensure the harmonisation of co-ordination of environmental protection policies among the States Parties. The Lusaka Agreement on Co-operative Enforcement Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora Signed on 8 September 1994, and enforced on 10 December 1996. The main objective of this Agreement is to establish close co-operation between certain African countries, and its main aim is to reduce and ultimately eliminate illegal trade in wild fauna and flora. The Agreement has a close relationship to CITES (see above). APPENDIX 3 DRAFT NATIONAL LEVEL CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN SWAZILANDThe draft national level criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in Swaziland are based on the set of indicators from the SADC Initiative on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in the Framework of the Dry-Zone Africa Process. Criterion 1: Development, maintenance and improvement of forest resources including their contribution to global carbon cyclesIndicators, Criterion 1:1.1 Total areas of natural forests, plantations and other wooded lands (and their change over time). 1.2 Bio-mass (and its change over time). Criterion 2: Conservation and enhancement of biological diversity in forest ecosystemsIndicators, Criterion 2:a) Ecosystem Indicators: 2.1 Areas by types of vegetation. 2.2 Extent of protected areas. 2.3 Conservation areas outside protected areas. 2.4 Area lost annually of forest ecosystems containing endemic species. 2.5 Re-introduction of locally extinct forest species. b) Species Indicators: 2.6 Number of forest-dependent species (and its change over time). 2.7 Number of forest dependent species at risk. 2.8 Resources exploitation systems used. c) Genetic Indicators (fauna, flora): 2.9 Average number of provenance (and its change over time). 2.10 Number of forest dependent species with reduced range. 2.11 Population levels of key species across their range. 2.12 Number of genetically modified organisms in the forests. 2.13 Degree of management of genetic resources. Criterion 3: Maintenance and enhancement of forest ecosystem health, vitality and integrityIndicators, Criterion 3:3.1 Areas and percentages of forest (natural and man-made) modified, with the indication of severity of damage by such agents as:
3.2 Percentages of forest ecosystems with or without regeneration. 3.3 Changes in soil fertility. 3.4 Encroachment by invasive plants. 3.5 Trends in yields of forest and agricultural produce. 3.6 Percentage of forest area encroached by human activities. Criterion 4: Maintenance and enhancement of productive functions of forests and other wooded landsIndicators, Criterion 4:4.1 Percentage of forests and other wooded lands managed according to a management plan. 4.2 Growing stock. 4.3 Periodical balance between growth and removal of wood products. 4.4 Average annual consumption of wood for energy per capita. 4.5 Managed and sustainable extraction of non-wood forest products of:
4.6 Area under agro-forestry practices. Criterion 5: Maintenance and improvement of environmental and conservation functions of forests and other wooded lands and combating land degradation/desertificationIndicators, Criterion 5:5.1 Areas and percentages of forests and other wooded lands managed mainly for the protection and/or rehabilitation of agricultural or range lands, and/or rehabilitation of degraded lands and/or areas prone to desertification and relevant important infrastructure works. 5.2 Areas and percentages of forests and other wooded areas managed mainly for the production of water, protection of watersheds, riverine zones and flood control. 5.3 Change in water yield and quality. 5.4 Areas of forests and other wooded lands managed for scenic and amenity purposes. 5.5 Areas, which have obtained an environmental compliance certificate. 5.6 Change in soil quality. Criterion 6: Maintenance and enhancement of socio-economic benefits of forests and other wooded landsIndicators, Criterion 6:6.1 Value of wood products. 6.2 Value of non-wood forest products. 6.3 Value of eco-tourism. 6.4 Value from primary and secondary industries. 6.5 Share of forest sector in GNP. 6.6 Value from biomass energy in rural, peri-urban and urban areas. 6.7 Wood and non-wood forest product trade balance. 6.8 Investment in forests and forest industries including informal sector. 6.9 Number of people employed in forest sector. 6.10 Degree to which social, cultural, aesthetic, historical and spiritual needs are met. 6.11 Benefits accruing to local communities with particular emphasis on disadvantaged groups. 6.12 Contributions to food security. Criterion 7: Adequacy and effectiveness of legal, institutional and policy frameworks for sustainable forest managementIndicators, Criterion 7:7.1 Existence of a national forest policy in harmony with other relevant sectoral policies. 7.2 Existence of a comprehensive legislative and regulatory framework providing for access to resources, alternative forms of conflict resolution and consideration of land occupancy and cultural rights of local populations. 7.3 Existence of institutional, human and financial capacity to implement the national forest policy, and relevant national and international laws, instruments and regulations. 7.4 Existence of co-ordinated research and development capacity. 7.5 Existence of monetary and non-monetary incentives for investments in the forestry sector. 7.6 Value of local expertise, knowledge and technologies. 7.7 Existence of measures to facilitate the transfer and adaptation of appropriate technologies. 7.8 Existence of an administrative, policy and legal framework for the effective participation of all stakeholders, i.e. Government, local communities, NGOs and the private sector in forest policy formulation, implementation and monitoring. 7.9 Existence of a regulatory framework for the regulation of genetically modified organisms. APPENDIX 4 FOREST RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND DATA SYSTEMSA wealth of information on forestry and other natural resources is available in Swaziland, not only in the Ministry responsible for forestry, but also in other departments and ministries. However, much of this information is not readily accessible, due to the lack of integrated information systems. Forest resource assessmentA reliable estimate of the national forest resources is required as a basis for forest policy implementation. Forest resource assessment should follow a methodology that can be reliably repeated for monitoring the resources, in particular with respect to the different strata and their spatial distribution. A periodic forest resource assessment will detect changes in forest cover, species distribution, species succession, regeneration, age distribution and other important aspects. The two most recent forest resource assessments, conducted in 1990 and 1999, have provided inconclusive data on the status of the forest resources. Introduction of a reliable methodology that can be repeated within a shorter time interval should be considered to remedy this situation. It is recommended to base the overall framework for guiding this activity on the methodology developed for defining national criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management, following the principles of the Dry-zone Africa Process (see Appendix 3). One of the objectives of this initiative is to gather country information on indicators and to monitor forest resources. The definition of criteria and indicators is a starting point for the improvement of the basis for the next forest resource assessment. The proper definition of many of the indicators would require the gathering of new and additional data, such as biodiversity indicators, conservation areas outside of protected areas, area lost annually containing endemic species and species indicators. The primary responsibility for the Ministry responsible for forestry is to provide data on the extent, volume, growth rates and status of the forest resource. Forestry Resource Assessments require substantial technical, financial and human resources, for which external funding are likely to be needed. The Ministry responsible for forestry has demonstrated its capacity to carry out inventories and is in a position to update data as an ongoing activity. Modern techniques including remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) should be used to monitor deforestation and afforestation. The vegetation classification can be further upgraded with 1:50,000 thematic maps, satellite imagery and the latest aerial photography. It is recommended to concentrate activities on the following three areas: Review of forest vegetation types and classification.Continuous Forest Inventory (CFI).Establishment of Permanent Sample Plots (PSPs)With respect to classification, adoption of the FAO Vegetation Classification System as the basis for improving the vegetation classification system for Swaziland should be considered. Higher level definition should take the Southern African Development Community’s (SADC) vegetation classification scheme into account, and lower level definition the various local systems already applied in Swaziland. In addition, the system of Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ) as established in Swaziland should be incorporated. For the Continuous Forest Inventory the existing database should be updated to reflect the new density classes, which requires additional sampling and calculation of updated wood volumes. For the Permanent Sample Plots it is necessary to estimate and establish annual growth increment curves and other data related to volumes and species composition. Forestry data systemsThe forestry data that have been generated in recent years include essential statistical and spatial information on forest resources. All interested stakeholders should use the information in planning and management applications. The available data should be organised in appropriate data management systems, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Land Information Systems (LIS). The Ministry responsible for forestry should establish an information unit responsible for the collection, collation, management and dissemination of forestry related information, including marketing and trade statistics. The results of the updated forest inventory and other data generated by the principal sources, namely the Ministry responsible for forestry and the Forestry Companies, should be used to improve the existing statistical database of the Central Statistics Office. The forest database with the Central Statistics Office has to be reviewed and continuously updated, including related trade statistics. The full value of forestry should also include results of Natural Resource Accounting (NRA) and the assessment and valuation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). National natural resource databasesStatistical and geo-referenced databases on land, environmental resources, and socio-economic conditions are a precondition for planning. Practical approaches and suitable frameworks need to be selected for integrated environmental management, in particular with respect to spatial distribution. Although there is database development, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in Swaziland, there is no formal overall national facility for information technology and spatial planning. It is recommended to establish comprehensive natural resource databases and management information systems on a national basis, in collaboration with other government departments and stakeholders. The establishment of a national unit may take place in stages. The first priority is to co-ordinate tabular and spatial databases with information on the environment, including forestry, biodiversity, land use, soils etc. In a later stage a comprehensive national central unit should be developed, in order to cater for the needs of all stakeholders, including Government, NGOs and the private sector. APPENDIX 5 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, EDUCATION AND RESEARCHPresent status of human resources development in forestryThere is currently a wide variety in skills and employment conditions in the various sub-sectors, such as commercial large-scale industrial forestry, small-scale forestry activities and community forestry. The industrial forestry is the only sector where there is an adequate human resource development with a skilled labour force and competent training facilities. The Government and to some extent the University of Swaziland and a few NGOs are the only other institutions where trained people with expertise in forestry are found. However, the available expertise is not comprehensive of all forest management aspects, and the overall human resource is not sufficient to cope with the multiple functions of forestry. In the other sub-sectors there is a general lack of skills and experience to deal with forestry issues, in particular in community forestry and management of the natural forest resources. Without appropriate knowledge and skills it is unrealistic to expect Government, communities and NGOs to be able to manage the forest resources in a sustainable manner. Training and education are necessary to empower all stakeholders, which requirements should be determined and prioritised by Government through a participatory process. Employment opportunities and matching human resource developmentThere are indications that many Swazis have aspirations to develop their skills and competence in managing trees and forests for their own and the Nation’s benefit. These interests by different groups of people include a wide range of options and applications. The aspirations include employment in the formal industrial forestry sector, developing small-scale commercial activities, setting up entrepreneurial activities in trade and transportation of wood products, involvement in conservation and tourism, etc. An important group is that of rural women trying to improve their social and economic conditions by making more efficient use of forest resources. It is important to evaluate the different sub-sectors with respect to their development outlook and future manpower requirements. Sectors such as the forestry plantations may keep the same demand for unskilled labour, but may reduce the overall labour force due to further mechanisation of forestry activities such as harvesting and transportation. Sectors such as small-scale processing may have promising prospects, but be in need of capital inputs and skills. Trade in non-timber forest products needs education and guidance in the environmental aspects of the activity. Human resource development appears to be the most crucial factor in several of the forestry sectors currently recognised as economically most promising or environmentally most vulnerable. The wide range of skills required for activities from wood production and processing to conservation of natural resources needs to be translated in educational and training programmes at various levels, taking into account future trends in forestry development and the impact of HIV/AIDS. Government, with other stakeholders, needs to establish a strategy for human resource development, with the aim that education and training programmes meet the need for specific skills in the various forestry sub-sectors. Education and training in forestryThere is currently inadequate training of rural communities in the sustainable utilisation and management of trees and forests. One of the reasons is the shortage of resources in the Ministry responsible for forestry and other relevant agencies, including NGOs, and another is the lack of comprehensive training materials. These issues need to be addressed in the overall strategy of human resource development. In the present situation local tertiary training institutions do not offer any forestry courses to enable students to enter the active industrial and community forestry sector. The setting-up and running of tertiary education courses is a very expensive undertaking. In view of the modest requirements, it does not appear advisable that the University of Swaziland introduces forestry diploma and degree courses. The national primary and secondary school curricula comprise only few components related to forestry. There is a need to reconsider the position of the forestry education and training in general, including the relevance of currently used training materials. Recommendations to improve the present situation include the following:
Current status and requirements of forestry researchVery little forestry related research is undertaken in Swaziland, apart from research by the commercial plantation forestry. There is no national forest research institution, and no university forestry department. The public forestry service has only a very limited research programme, due to a lack of resources. However, there is a need for forestry research, in particular with respect to priority areas such as community forestry, natural forest resource management, conservation forestry and the impact of forestry on the environment. This would also require exchange of research information with other countries. Institutional research arrangementsResearch should be undertaken under a broader research programme through collaboration of the Ministry responsible for forestry with other institutions such as the University of Swaziland, the Swaziland Foresters Association and the private sector. The research should be co-ordinated through the National Research Council. The Environment Management Bill 2001 calls for the establishment of a National Environment Fund to act as seed capital for environmental projects. This fund could amongst others be used to undertake conservation forestry research. Research is also required for many other land uses in Swaziland, including agriculture, wildlife, water, land rehabilitation, etc. There is a need for an overall science and technology research institution as a long-term strategy to conduct co-ordinated natural resource research programmes. In this overall research framework a greater co-operation is required with international research institutions and donors. Adequate arrangements, including application of copyright, are required to protect intellectual property resulting from research programmes. This should also encompass intellectual property from indigenous knowledge systems. |