Sustainability Indicators for Swaziland

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NATURAL RESOURCE ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SWAZILAND

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ENERGY

Swaziland National Energy Policy Project (SNEPP)

SNEPP was started in August 1999 and is expected to be completed in July 2002.

The development objective of the project is that the energy needs in Swaziland are increasingly covered in a sustainable and efficient manner, taking into account indigenous resources, social, economic and environmental factors.

The immediate objective of the project is that at the end of the project period the Government of Swaziland (GoS) will have an implementable national energy policy, approved by the Cabinet, following sustainable, social and economically sound planning principles.

To achieve this objective, the following outputs will be produced:

1. A draft National Energy Policy prepared for submission to Cabinet
2. Solar, Wind and Hydropower Measurements and Assessments
3. Assessment and Strengthening of Capacity of the Energy Section; and
4. Awareness Increased on Energy Issues for Stakeholders and Energy Consumers

The four outputs are divided into activities as follows:

Output 1. A draft National Energy Policy prepared for submission to Cabinet

1.1. Initiate the energy policy formulation process
1.2. Improve energy information and data handling
1.3. Prepare a review of the energy sector
1.4. Consult and inform stakeholders
1.5. Develop national energy policy options and recommendations
1.6. Assess means and strategies for implementation
1.7. Prepare for approval of national energy policy paper

Output 2. Solar, wind and hydropower measurements and assessments

2.1. Review basis for solar and wind data
2.2. Establish stations and prepare measurements
2.3. Carry out and analyse measurements
2.4. Assess hydropower possibilities

Output 3. Assessment and strengthening of capacity of the Energy Section

3.1. Assess training needs
3.2. Carry out one staff audit
3.3. Assess training possibilities
3.4. Participate in formal training
3.5. Carry out on-the-job-training

Output 4. Awareness increased on energy issues for stakeholders and energy consumers

4.1. Assess awareness needs and opportunities
4.2. Carry out awareness raising activities

As a part of "Activity 1.4. Consult and inform stakeholders" a number of stakeholder workshops will be held during the policy formulation process.

The stakeholder workshops will take place, when different milestones are achieved. The main schedule of the workshops is considered to be as follows:

1st workshop : The purpose of the first stakeholder workshop is:

• to provide the stakeholders with a broad understanding of energy policy aspects and the relations between energy policy and other policies - environment, taxation, rural development, agriculture, industry etc.;
• to capture the various views and interests of all major stakeholders and create a common understanding of, which main issues are to be addressed by the project; and
• to be the starting point for the establishment of a number of working groups, which will further discuss and analyse different part of the energy system of the country and the different sub sectors, e.g. the electricity sector and the petroleum sector.

2nd workshop : The purpose of the second stakeholder workshop is to present and discuss the results of the work from the working groups. At the workshop the results of a number of case study analyses of technology options will be presented. In addition, the results of the scenario analyses on a national level will be presented, and specific targets and development strategies will be suggested and discussed, and the results of the analyses of implementation strategies will be presented. Stakeholders will be invited to provide written comments, if there is a need. Based on the above analytical work and discussions in the working groups, options for the national energy policy will be presented.

3rd workshop : The purpose of the third stakeholder workshop is to present and discuss the first draft National Energy Policy Paper.

After the third stakeholder workshop, a second draft of a National Energy Policy Paper will be prepared. The stakeholders will be asked for written comments to this second draft. The second draft will thereafter be discussed with the individual stakeholders and will be presented to The Energy Policy Advisory Committee and for the Parliamentary Portfolio Committee for comments, and a final draft will be prepared and submitted to the Cabinet for consideration and approval.

A need to consult Community Based Organisations (CBO), Non Governmental Organisations (NGO's) and selected Chiefdoms in the four regions of the country as representatives for the people living in rural areas has been identified. The reason is to try to address the 75% of the population, which live in rural areas.

After each stakeholder seminar a policy brief will be prepared for information to the Energy Policy Advisory Committee through the Project Steering Committee. Finally, direct consultations will take place with the Minister responsible, whenever needed.

Project organisation

The project is organised as follows:

Executing Agency - The Ministry of Natural Resources & Energy (MNRE)

Co-funding Agency - Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED)

Implementing Agencies - The Energy Section (ES) and National Meteorological Services (MET)

Project Steering Committee - The Project Steering Committee (PSC) has the overall responsibility for project implementation and reporting to DANCED.

Energy Policy Advisory Committee (EPAC) - The Energy Policy Advisory Committee is responsible for advising the MNRE in decisions taken in connection with the policy formulation such as issues to be discussed during the stakeholder consultations and the subsequent feedback to policy development.

Project Management Group - The Project Management Group (PMG) is responsible for the day-to-day project implementation.

Technical Assistance Consultants - The project will be supported through technical assistance provided by external consultants with RAMBØLL as the lead consultant. The role of the consultants will be to assist in particular technical issues required by the project.

The long-term consultant comprises the Energy Planning Advisor as Chief Technical Adviser (CTA) for the Swaziland National Energy Policy Project.

RAMBØLL, the sub-consultant TRIPOD and regional and local consultants will provide the short-term technical assistance..

1.1 Coal

Coal is the only naturally occurring fossil fuel in the country. Swaziland possesses large reserves of low-volatile and low sulphur anthracite coal of medium to high quality, this coal is relatively smokeless and thus environmentally less harmful than most other coal types but does not ignite easily. The Maloma Colliery is producing anthracite coal, which is the best quality coal with low ash, high carbon content but is also of low volatility. It has low sulphur content which makes it more environmentally benign. Because of its high quality, it is thus much more expensive than the bituminous coal from South Africa. That is why it is not sold locally but exported to be used in the metallurgical industry. Substantial reserves have been determined as shown below.

Source: GSMD (Geological Surveys and Mines Department: Coal Reserves in Swaziland), 1998

Currently coal is produced at Maloma Colliery. The reserve to production ratio based on current production levels stands at 506 (Run-of mine/ production Maloma 1998).

Production gradually declined from 1990 to 1992 by almost 20% and increased in 1994 by 68% and again in 1995 it declined by 19.8%. The 1995-drop was caused by a change in open cast mining to underground mining.

1.2 Forestry wood waste

The total forest cover in Swaziland is approximated to be about 625,400 ha (i.e. 162,400 ha commercial plantations and 463,000 ha indigenous forests). During the processes of pruning and harvesting in commercial plantations, branches are left on the ground to decompose. Additionally, the mills produce not only bark and sawdust as waste, but also sweepings, knots, dregs and grits that are usually landfilled.

The amount of this waste has however not yet been assessed and is an issue for further investigations. The synopsis below gives an impression on the size of plantations and yields of the main plantations.

Table: Forestry plantations

Source: SIPA, June 1999

1.3 Bagasse

Sugar cane residues are basically of two types: bagasse, which is the fibrous residue delivered after the extraction of the juice from the sugar in mills, and the cane residues made up of leaves and tops of cane plants (also known as cane trash) that remain behind in the field after the harvest.

Substantial amounts of bagasse are produced by the sugar industry annually. In 1995, about 818,543 tonnes were produced. 85% were used for industrial process heat and the balance for electricity generation. In general, there exists extensive excess bagasse in all three mills in Swaziland.

Although bagasse has at present no commercial value (zero market price), there are emerging alternative uses including paper and fibreboard making. These could result in a non-zero price for bagasse.

The amount of cane trash left on the fields, which could be used for energy purposes, is not known.

1.4 Hydro resources

SEB has 40.5 MW of installed hydro generating capacity which contributed 194.4 GWh in 1998. An opportunity also exists for developing a 19MW hydro power station below the Maguga Dam (which is presently under construction).

A number of studies concerning hydrological resources have been completed, mainly to look at the general utilisation of water resources. Detailed hydrological data has been collected in respect of all significant river systems in Swaziland. There is however a need to perform (re) analysis of the national hydro potential, with new and more up-to-date criteria for site selection. Additionally, there is a need to investigate the potential for small hydro plants (i.e. plants from the hundred kW range up to 5MW).

With the existing information the following preliminary information indicates the potential for the country:

Gross theoretical potential = 440 MW (3800 GWh/a)
Existing capacity = 42 MW (100-200 GWh/a)
Economically exploitable potential = 61 MW (310 GWh/a)
Technically exploitable potential = 110 MW (560 GWh/a)

1.5 Solar energy

Swaziland’s solar regime is not well documented and only limited data is available. For this reason it is necessary to collect sufficient and reliable data so as to map out the resource. However, indications from SADC maps and from satellite images, and from sunshine hour data collected by the NMS, are that annual averages could lie between 4 to 6 kWh/m²/day.

In 1992 the Energy Section established an extensive solar pilot project mainly to electrify clinics and schools. Several street lighting, solar water heating and vaccine refrigeration systems were also deployed through the project. The project results indicated that the solar resources was sufficient in many areas throughout the country but that certain institutional and technical barriers needed to be overcome in future projects.

1.6 Wind energy

The wind regime is not well documented. Again, there is a need to collect sufficient data at the correct heights in order to map the wind regime and estimate the wind power potential. From the SADC experience, it seems uncertain, whether that large wind generation could be possible. However, there could be a potential for micro wind turbines (e.g. for battery charging <100 kW).

There has also been use of wind pumps. This application seems to hold the greatest potential for wind energy in Swaziland, especially since mean speeds slightly below 4m/s could be sufficient for their viable deployment.

1.7 Geothermal energy

The potential for geothermal heat and power generation has not been explored. There are hot springs at Ezulwini, Gege and Siphofaneni, which indicate that some potential could be available.

1.8 Wood fuel

The amount of woodfuel available has not been sufficiently investigated. The best known studies were carried out in 1994 and 1995, from which estimates could be deduced. The non-commercial forest resources have not been managed sustainable, and this has resulted in decreased availability of firewood. In 1995 for example, the annual forest deficit has been estimated at 158 000 tonnes. It is estimated that woodfuel demand constitutes 80% of the total wood demand. The ongoing Forestry Policy Project and Legislation project, supported by DANCED will provide an updated inventory of the forest cover base.

1.9 Wastes and other options

The potential for using municipal wastes for energy generation is unknown. It is hoped that the National Solid Waste Management Strategy for Swaziland funded by DANCED could provide an insight into this issue.

In the sugar industry, 46,867 tonnes of molasses were produced in 1995. There are now two ethanol producing plants at Simunye and at Big Bend utilising this waste. Studies have been conducted to look into the feasibility of mixing ethanol with gasoline, which could have significant benefits to the country. However, it was found that unless the crude oil price rose to about US $40/bbl, this would not make economic sense. At present the ethanol produced is exported to industry for use as an industrial solvent.

The possibility of using oils for making methyl esters (chemicals that could be derived from oils and mixed with or extend diesel supplies) have not been considered. Many oils can be used for making the esters e.g. rapeseed, sunflower, palm, Soya, animal fats. However, car manufactures have concerns over the introduction of these esters in diesel, mainly due to perceived technical difficulties. However, there are some countries in the world, e.g. in Europe where these esters are being used with apparent success. It should be mentioned that a condition for ensuring a financially viable utilisation seems to be use of considerable pricing incentives from the state (high-energy taxes on fossil fuels, tax exemption, investment subsidies etc.)

The potential for exploitation of coal-bed methane has not been investigated. The substantial coal reserves in Swaziland suggest that there could be some potential for using these resources. However, further investigation is necessary.

Primary Energy Supply

The figures below show the distribution of energy carriers at primary energy supply level. The total supply of primary energy is 37,780 TJ/year.

The figures illustrate the following picture for the supply situation:

• Bagasse (33%) gives the largest contribution to the energy supply. Bagasse is a waste product of the sugar industry in Swaziland. It is used by the industries for electricity and steam generation. The electricity is used in the sugar plants and also distributed to surrounding company towns, but no electricity is sold to the national grid due to lack of incentives. Low efficiency conversion techniques are presently used;
• Wood fuel and wood waste (26%) - the second largest contribution. The wood fuel mainly comes from indigenous forests and Savannah woodlands and to some extent from forest plantations and woodlots. The wood fuel is consumed in households, and the wood waste from the timber is used by industries for electricity and heat generation.
• Coal (13%) -Most coal -burning appliances and equipment used in Swaziland (both domestic and industrial) are designed to use bituminous coal, which is imported from South Africa, and cannot use domestic anthracite and semi-anthracite coal.
• Diesel (9%), Gasoline (9%) and all petroleum products are imported from the Durban refinery through approximately 70 outlets by five international oil companies and are mainly used in the transport sector.
• Electricity (7%). About 85% of the electricity sold by SEB is imported from ESKOM in South Africa, the rest is produced by SEB.
• Other Energy sources (1.2%) comprises candles, agricultural wastes and animal wastes.

Final energy consumption

The figure below shows the final energy consumption in Swaziland in 1995, divided into economic sectors and energy carriers:

Final energy consumption at end use level

Coal

There is a high demand for coal in the country, especially in the sugar industry, the agro industry and the manufacturing industry. Coal is also consumed by the household sector. Coal consumption by sector is approximately 65% by industry and 23% by the household sector.

Petroleum

Diesel and gasoline are mainly used in the transport sector. The other petroleum products are used as follows:

• Paraffin (1%) is used for lighting by rural households and as a cooking fuel in some urban and rural households;
• LPG (0.5%) is used in both rural and urban households. It is also used in industries and in company towns;
• Jet fuel (0.3%) is mainly used in aeroplanes;
• HFO, Heavy Fuel Oil (0.4%) is mainly used in industries.

Electricity

The electricity sub-sector in Swaziland is divided into two segments. The commercial supply through the national grid, is the responsibility of the Government's owned parastatal Swaziland Electricity Board (SEB), which delivers about 70% of the country's electricity for final consumption. The remaining 30% is self generated by establishments in industry, agriculture and service sectors for their operational requirements.

Total electricity consumed in 1995 was about 580 GWh of which 53% was consumed by industry, 21% by agriculture and 8% by commerce and services. SEB electricity production is generated from four hydropower plants, the eDwaleni (15 MW), eZulwini (20 MW), Maguduza (6 MW) and Mbabane (1 MW) and two diesel units with a total capacity of 9.5 MW. Because of the high dependence on sufficient rainfall, the amount of electricity generated by the hydro plants has varied considerably over the past years from a minimum of 77,207 MWh in the drought year 1992, to 213,251 MWh in 1989.

The majority of SEB's power requirements are imported from ESKOM through three 132 kV-transmission lines. Two of these lines ESKOM 1 and 2 connect the ESKOM Oshoek Substation with the Stonehenge Substation in Swaziland. The third line links ESKOM with Nhlangano Substation. The total capacity of the three lines is 96 MW. The 400 kV line, which is presently under construction, is to provide a supply of electricity by ESKOM to the MOZAL plant (aluminium smelter) in Mozambique. It will also provide up to 250 MW demand to Swaziland and replaces the proposed 4th and 5th feeders between Swaziland, South Africa and Mozambique. The line will be built, owned and operated by Motraco, a company in which SEB holds equal shares with ESKOM and Electricidade de Mozambique (EDM). This line will improve security of supply of electricity to Swaziland and assist in reducing outages.

Presently the Swaziland Electricity Supply Industry (ESI) is being restructured to allow private participation and third party access and enable the monitoring of performance and allow reform and transparency in pricing. An internal restructuring process is also taking place within SEB.

Biomass

In Swaziland the term biomass encompasses bagasse, woodfuel (firewood and woodwaste from sawmills and plantations) and small amounts of agricultural waste and animal waste.

More than 60% of Swaziland's final energy consumption is based on biomass resources. Biomass is not only the major fuel in households, but also the major source of electricity self-generation in the sugar, pulp and saw mill industries. This shows the strategic importance of biomass within the energy balance, which can be regarded as the backbone of the energy supply system of Swaziland. There is potential for increased utilisation by using high efficient and modern energy technologies. Although often perceived as 'inferior,' traditional and unmodern in comparison with high-energy technologies, their advantages are obvious.

Indigenous resources in most cases are readily available at the places of demand or at a limited distance from them, are cheap or affordable both in financial and macro-economic terms, and are well established energy carriers. The sugar and pulp timber industries produce large quantities of by-product during the processing of raw materials. In the sugar industry 12, 500 TJ of bagasse were produced in 1995, 10,670 TJ of bagasse were used for industrial process heat and 1,800 TJ were used to generate electricity. The pulp and timber industry used 740TJ of wood waste during the same period for electricity generation.

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This page was last updated on 03 February 2004