SEAP - Policy, Legal and Institutional Working Group Report

LEVEL THREE

SOIL CONSERVATION ACTION PLAN

SOIL CONSERVATION POLICY

This policy is to focus solely on conservation problems, in particular towards implementing the broad principles enunciated in the National and Rural Land and Environmental Policies. The higher level policies as incorporated in the National Environmental Action Plan set the overall framework for the more detailed soil conservation policy. Policy aspects and practical recommendations as brought forward by the National Awareness Workshop of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification are also reflected.

The soil conservation policy covers aspects related to rural land use, including crop and livestock production, forestry, rural infrastructure, etc. The emphasis of the policy is on the design of strategies and practical application.

STATUS OF POLICY

Non-existent

ISSUES SUMMARY

Large proportion of Swaziland, notably the rangelands, affected by severe soil erosion and land degradation.
Population pressure on natural resources.
Unsustainable land use, including deforestation, settlements and infrastructure.
Lack of responsibility for proper resource management by most land users.
Lack of adequate soil conservation programmes and specialized extension service.
Inadequate, uncoordinated and decentralized control by a variety of responsible institutions and bodies (e.g. CRDB for SNL, NRB for TDL).
Insufficient and fragmented legislation, and lack of implementation.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

The soil conservation objectives and policies are part of the more general environmental policy formulated at the higher national and rural levels. There are three main elements in the soil conservation policy: the status of the degradation, the resource management and the reclamation.

Broad Overall Objective:

To reduce and control soil erosion and land degradation.

Policy Principles:

Soil erosion and land degradation be given highest political priority.
Soil conservation be integrated in sustainable production systems.

Policy Practical Elements:

Inventories of erosion and degradation be updated and degradation be monitored.
Prevention of erosion be promoted through anti-desertification programmes, with emphasis on resolving the physical and socio-economic causes of land degradation.
Sustainable management and resource responsibility be improved in all relevant sectors:
- animal production
- crop production
- forestry
- mining
- infrastructure/settlement.
Reclamation of degraded land be pursued, with priority given to cases with:
- health and related hazards
- damage to infrastructure
- resources with high production potential
- communities receptive to prevention and rehabilitation
- high feasibility of intervention measures.

Policy Supportive Elements:

Existing soil conservation legislation be appraised and comprehensive legislation be formulated, endorsed and implemented.
Education programmes and awareness campaigns be formulated and executed.
Research into causes and remediation be promoted, making optimal use of transfer of technology.
Institutional support be strengthened, with proper definition of one central responsible institution.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

To update inventories information systems and monitor degradation through established systems (AELDA), including analysis of causes, applying appropriate tools such as remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems.
To determine suitable and sustainable production systems to replace systems leading to degradation of the environment, taking into account the specific conditions in the various agroecological zones.
To formalize land titles and land user's rights in order to increase responsibility for management of natural resources.
To improve range management, especially grazing practices and cattle movements, recognizing that this is the most important single cause of degradation.
To design and implement comprehensive and integrated conservation programmes to combat land degradation.
To protect and rehabilitate land and vegetation cover, especially in the following areas of concern:
- overgrazed areas
- grass strip maintenance
- burning
- removal of trees and woodland
- roads
- flood damage
- sensitive catchments
To identify priority areas for rehabilitation and estimate costs of recovery.
To control and advise on land allocation in degraded and vulnerable areas.
To suggest and promote alternative livelihood systems in areas prone to desertification.
To provide incentives and resources for the active involvement and participation of communities in soil conservation and reclamation as part of the overall land use and management. Communities and local leaders should be encouraged to formulate their own Land Use Management Plans to improve conservation and production through selecting sustainable systems, controlling livestock numbers, etc.
To establish a clear soil conservation control authority, linked with the Swaziland Environment Authority.
To review, reactivate and update existing legislation and formulate a new, efficient comprehensive legislation coordinated by SEA.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

FAO / MoAC Project Field Document 13 AELDA & explanatory notes, land degradation map.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Predominantly MoAC, MTEC & MNRE, but with MPWT, MHUD & MEE involvement.

AGRICULTURAL LAND USE AND ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN

AGRICULTURAL LAND USE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

This policy is to have a narrower focus than either level one or level two policies, confined to agricultural land use and environment, and is to be subject to the recommendations of both the national land and environmental policy and the rural land and environmental policy. Its recommendations should be compatible with other policies at the third level of the hierarchy, for example the Soil Conservation Policy.

STATUS OF POLICY

A draft National Agricultural Land Use Policy was prepared in 1994, but has not been submitted to cabinet. A new draft, capturing many of the recommendations of the 1994 draft, should be prepared under this hierarchical structure.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Agricultural production

Food security demands.
Overall balance of agricultural systems: crop versus livestock production.
Cash crops versus staple food.
Maize production versus diversification.
Large-scale versus small scale farming.
Commercialization of farming systems on SNL.
Low and unreliable crop yields.
Effects of drought on production levels.

Land tenure

Lack of security of tenure on SNL.
Land allocation procedures.
Speculative subdivision of TDL farms.

Land use planning

Mismatch between land suitability and actual land use.
Loss of prime agricultural land to other land uses, notably urban.
Shortage of suitable land for agricultural production.
Abandoned arable land on SNL.
Inefficient rural settlement pattern occupying high potential land.
Non or underutilization of farms, both TDL and purchased SNL.
Lack of integrated planning for purchased Swazi Nation Land.
Planning and management of water resources

Management

Low farm management levels.
Inadequate central and household storage capacities.
Insufficient transport and marketing systems.
Uncontrolled use of fertilizers and pesticides.
Price policies and agricultural subsidies.

Land degradation

Unsustainable land use leading to degradation.
Severe degradation of rangelands.
Bush encroachment on grazing land and fallow arable land.
Erosion and depletion of soil resources.
Inadequate soil conservation practices.

Institutions and support services

Institutional and administrative weaknesses.
Functioning and requirements of agricultural extension service.
Functioning and supportive role of agricultural research.
Insufficient provisions in existing legislation to protect agricultural land.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad Overall Objectives:

The broad agricultural objectives as identified in the eighties relate to improving (1) food self-sufficiency, (2) nutrients levels, (3) exports, (4) employment and (5) rural income. These objectives are all interrelated, in the sense that they all depend on the existence of efficient production systems. There are strong arguments to consider food security as a more meaningful objective than food self-sufficiency. Food security is a complex objective which can only partially achieved within the context of national agricultural production. Overall objectives are redefined as follows:

To achieve efficient and sustainable agricultural production systems in support of economic growth and export.
To make optimal contributions to food security and consumption requirements.
To provide increased income generating opportunities and to secure sustainable livelihoods for farmers and the rural population.

Policy Principles:

Many of the policy elements in the Agricultural Land Use and Environmental Policy relate to the National and Rural Land and Environmental Policies. There is a necessary overlap to ascertain that the Agricultural Land Use and Environmental Policy contains all essential elements relevant to its application.

Agricultural land be used to its best potential for sustainable production.
Highly productive arable land be protected against speculation, subdivision, uncontrolled settlement and undesirable changes in land use.
Commercialization of livestock and crop production be pursued, with diversification towards high value crops.
The central role of the farmer in production systems be recognized and strengthened through the provision of an appropriate decision making environment.
Land tenure arrangements be adapted or changed as a precondition to facilitate introduction of profitable production systems.

Policy Practical Elements:

The national and rural policy elements in particular applicable to agricultural policy are participation, environmental integration, land tenure and agroecological zoning (AEZ). The AEZ based priorities are further worked in the following agricultural strategy section. There is a strong interaction between production goals, production systems and AEZ based land use planning.

The environmental policy in agricultural production follows the overall national policy and more in particular the soil conservation policy. Detailed policy elements are worked out at the next policy level for specific agricultural land uses, such as rainfed and irrigated cropping, ranching, extensive communal grazing, etc.

Degradation control and land rehabilitation be integral part of all farming systems.
Agricultural production goals be defined in relation to national and household food security requirements.
Agroecological zoning (AEZ) and land suitability be used as the planning basis for spatial distribution of agricultural land uses and production systems, including the allocation of land.
Development of economically viable agricultural production systems be linked to production goals.
Farming systems approach be applied in expanding smallholder opportunities.
Effectively functioning mechanisms be pursued covering the full sequence of food management, storage, transport, distribution, agro-processing and marketing.
Subdivision of agricultural land be strictly controlled to avoid speculation and loss of production.
Conditional leaseholds be established on purchased and other SNL.
An efficient and acceptable balance of the use of water be established between agricultural, domestic and other uses.
Farmers and rural communities be actively involved in the planning and decision making of agricultural land use and management.

Policy Supportive Elements:

Administrative structures and institutions be improved for the efficient planning and regulation of agricultural land use.
Necessary assistance and technological support be provided to farmers through specialized extension services.
Agricultural information systems be efficiently organized, maintained and made accessible.
Efficient legislation be formulated in support of agricultural land use policy.
Credit facilities and financial control in agricultural enterprises be improved.
Greater awareness be created in the farming community with respect to sustainable and viable agricultural production systems.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General strategic elements

There are different options for agricultural scenarios, depending on the national and regional macro-economic performance. The two main scenarios recognized are (1) a stagnating economy with reduced non-farm income opportunities and increasing demand for food supplies from SNL resources, and (2) a long-term continuation of the non-farm income opportunities growth and decreasing dependence of SNL resources. The first scenario is considered the most likely one.

The central overall objective is to achieve efficient and sustainable agricultural production systems, which include the livestock industry, irrigated and rainfed crop production, and the related forestry industry. Assessment of the present situation shows that large and efficient agricultural production systems in Swaziland are in place, such as the sugar, citrus and forestry industries. There are also smaller production systems and farms with economic and sustainable outputs, as well as communal and traditional activities with a respectable and sustainable production.

However, large parts of the country are not controlled by sustainable production systems, as is evident through low outputs and land degradation. There is an urgent need for improving land use on both communal and private land, guided by clear policies.

Land shortage, land tenure and land degradation are most often mentioned as the major constraints in land development, with the increasing population pressure as the underlying cause. However, there is also a substantial amount of not or underutilized land, including TDL farms, purchased SNL farms, and also communal SNL. Most problems relate to land management and planning.

Complementary to the national and rural strategies, the general agricultural strategy includes the following elements, with emphasis on SNL development.

To integrate agricultural development and environmental protection.
To ensure the active participation of farmers, and in particular women, in planning and implementation of viable and profitable production systems.
To use the farming systems development approach in changing the current passive role of SNL farming in general and the farmers role in decision making in particular.
To explore opportunities and propose options for developing new income streams.
To promote linkages between agriculture and non-agricultural sectors, especially industry, trade, transport and marketing.
To reform current trading and processing activities to provide optimal services to all producers.
To focus technological support on constraints and opportunities of farm systems rather than on potential yield increase.
To promote sustainable agricultural land use on non and underutilized communal SNL and purchased SNL farms.
To promote and legally enforce the efficient use of TDL farms.

Strategy for agricultural land use and environmental planning

Land use and environmental planning, especially selection of agricultural land uses, is to be based on land evaluation. Land evaluation results for Swaziland are available in terms of the physical land suitability and crop potential of the agroecological zones and units, including the economic potential of selected crops. For a brief explanation of AEZ approach reference is made section 2.1.2.0 under Rural Land and Environmental Policy.

The recommended land uses relate in the first place to improved traditional systems on communal land, but would also apply to commercial production on private land or commercialization introduced to SNL. The basic idea is to promote specific production systems and crops in areas where they can result in profitable economic returns.

In the planning strategy preference is given to crop production systems as these have presently higher returns than traditional animal husbandry. Ranching and extensive communal grazing could be equally important to crop production, provided animal production systems are improved and commercialized. Summary land use recommendations are already incorporated at the national and rural policy levels.

To apply the agroecological zoning (AEZ) approach with the following recommendations for agricultural land use based on land suitability and gross margins.

Highveld

Improved rainfed field cropping (sunflower, maize, potato); Rainfed tree cropping (apple, pear, plum, peach, avocado);
Extensive communal grazing (on steeper parts).

Upper Middleveld/upper part Lebombo

Improved rainfed field cropping (maize, groundnut, cotton, sunflower, cowpea); Rainfed tree cropping (mango, granadilla, cashew, pecan nut, tung nut);
Extensive communal grazing (on steeper parts).

Lower Middleveld/lower part Lebombo/northern Lowveld

Irrigated tree and field cropping (citrus, banana, sugar cane, vegetables, maize, cotton, groundnut, wheat, potato);
Extensive communal grazing;
Improved rainfed field cropping (groundnuts, cotton).

Southeastern Lowveld

Irrigated tree and field cropping (as Lower Middleveld);
Extensive communal grazing.

Strategy elements to commercialize agricultural production systems

A proper strategy for commercialization of production systems on SNL can only be worked out after the production goals have been defined in connection with the food security strategy (national, regional, international). Also the role of TDL needs be defined in the context of food security.

Commercialization of SNL production will require substantial investments, also in infrastructure. A consequence of intensification and commercialization on SNL will be a drastic reduction of traditional and communal land use practices.

Land tenure

A precondition for commercialization on SNL is to provide for changes in the land tenure system to ensure security of land holding and provision of a collateral for credit.

There are various possibilities, depending on present tenure arrangements. One option is to privatise SNL (purchased or communal). This could be a localized option, in selected areas with specific conditions or constraints, or requiring large investments.

More feasible and acceptable would be leasehold arrangements on purchased or communal SNL. Compensation is to be part of such arrangements, e.g. as a lump sum or through land made available elsewhere. Compensation options in the case of reduction of the communal grazing area are incentives for direct destocking or provision of grazing land elsewhere, e.g. government farms or underutilized communal land in the Lowveld.

To change current individual and communal SNL tenure arrangements, for example by introducing leaseholds.
To define leasehold periods and rental systems (economic or nominal) for leasehold SNL.
To regulate land use and monitor management and production of leased purchased farms.
To introduce restrictions with respect to the use of communal SNL.
To include incentives in the development of SNL, either direct or fiscal.

The clear defining of existing property rights, as referred to in levels one and two of this paper, is a precondition for successfully addressing the tenure aspect of commercialisation.

Commercialized production systems

Commercialization of production systems on SNL may take place on leased land by individuals or groups, or on communal grazing land. A major requirement for commercialization is improvement of the supportive systems from storage to marketing.

To explore smallholder opportunities in commercializing farming, such as:
- irrigated horticulture
- arable food crops
- tree crop (citrus)
- crops for processing (groundnuts, sunflower, sugar cane)
- small stock and poultry
- cattle and game farming
- dairy products.
To encourage commercialization of communal livestock production through changes in the grazing rights, e.g. through introduction of agistment fees (see reference 4.1.1.1.3).
To provide acceptable guarantees for increased economic returns.
To encourage diversification as part of commercialization of production.
To promote adequate technology for food management and agro-processing.
To improve storage and transport facilities.
To improve direct links and opportunities with markets.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

FAO / MoAC Land Evaluation results No. 5 & 6

Identification, Assessment and Analysis of the Social and Economic Factors Influencing Land Utilisation in Swaziland. Consultant's report. (1994, H.B. Lunogelo).

UNDP / MoAC 1994. Strategic Issues in Swaziland's Agricultural Development. "The Feldmann Report". Food Studies Group, International Development Centre, Oxford.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MoAC

FORESTRY ACTION PLAN

FORESTRY POLICY

This policy is to focus solely upon forestry issues, but again guided both spatially and in principles by the recommendations within the NLEP and the RLEP. It must be noted, however, that forestry is not confined to the rural sector. Although comparatively insignificant economically, the forests that exist in both urban and peri-urban areas have important social functions which are addressed within this policy framework.

STATUS OF POLICY

Non-existent.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Management and environment

Inadequate management of forest resources, especially wattle and indigenous, and in particular in the urban and peri-urban areas (amenity and recreation forestry).
Lack of people's participation in forest resource management.
Competition between forestry and other land uses.
Negative effects of plantation forestry on biodiversity and water resources.
Invasion of exotic species from plantations into indigenous forest.
Uncontrolled veld and forest fires.
Loss of tree and vegetation cover through deforestation resulting in land degradation, loss of plant and animal biodiversity.
Shortage of fuel wood in localised areas, especially Upper and Lower Middleveld.
Waste deposition in wattle forests and indigenous woodlands.

Exploitation

Limited markets for indigenous and wattle forest products.
Lack of investment capital for small entrepreneurs.
Lack of forest product diversification (monoculture).
Declining economic growth and fluctuation in world market prices threatening stability and performance of forest industry.
Incomprehensive, fragmented and outdated forest legislation.
Inadequate human, financial and physical resources to implement forest policy and enforce legislation.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad Overall Objectives:

To achieve efficient, profitable and sustainable exploitation of forest resources.
To increase the role of forestry in environmental protection, conservation of plant and animal genetic resources and rehabilitation of degraded land.

Policy Principles:

Forest resources be conserved and efficiently managed for optimal economic production.
Biodiversity be sustained in the indigenous forest, woodland and savanna resources by maintaining ecological balance.
Plantation forestry not be permitted on land with high potential for agricultural production.

Policy Practical Elements:

The forest resource inventory be maintained and changes be monitored.
Plantation forests be monitored with respect to effects on biodiversity and water resources.
Expansion of commercial plantation forests be evaluated on the basis of land suitability and environmental and socio-economic impact. Forest planning is first to determine what to leave, and then what to take.
EIA be applied to all forest planning.
Expansion of small forests and woodlots be stimulated in communal areas with basic needs for forest products.
The use of indigenous species in afforestation and reforestation be promoted.
Fuelwood supply be secured by a efficient and sustainable utilization of existing wattle forests, indigenous resources and woodlots.
Appropriate forestry techniques and watershed management be applied in soil conservation and rehabilitation of degraded land.
Forestry be integrated with other land uses, such as agriculture (agroforestry), nature and wildlife preservation, eco-tourism, recreation, residential use.

Policy Supportive Elements:

People's participation be recognized as a key element in the management, conservation, protection and judicious use of forest resources.
Capability in forestry planning and management be strengthened by human resource development.
Forestry research capacity be developed to generate reliable forestry information and technology relevant to Swaziland.
Public awareness and knowledge of forest resource management be increased.
An effective forestry legislation be formulated and implemented.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General strategy

To strongly promote interaction and integration of forestry, especially in planning and management, with other sectors such as crop production/agroforestry, livestock development/range management, nature conservation/eco-tourism, urban/peri-urban development, etc.
To ensure the involvement and participation of all stakeholders (local people, private sector, government and NGO's) in the management and conservation of all forest resources (especially wattle and indigenous forests).
To fully involve local communities in the design, planning and implementation of forest projects aimed at improving the supply of wood products.

Strategies related to sustainable management of forest resources

To prepare management plans for all forest operations, for specific forest sites and/or ecosystems, and including provisions on the protection and maintenance of adjacent and interconnected sites and ecosystems.
To maintain and update the indigenous flora inventory and documentation in the Swaziland National Herbarium.
To classify and map vegetation and forest types, including the status of degradation, using an appropriate land cover classification system, and to evaluate and demarcate areas suitable for the various systems of forest practice such as production forests, protection and conservation forests, mixed range or multiple use forests (including agroforestry), community forests (including woodlots and wattle), establishment of botanical gardens, amenity and recreation and landscape scenery for eco-tourism.
To assess and monitor deforestation and land degradation, including the effects of veld and forest fires, and to recommend and implement remedial measures.
To eradicate invasive species from plantations and wattle forests threatening other land uses, as well as other exotic and indigenous shrubs encroaching on arable land and rangelands.
To apply appropriate silvicultural techniques and forest practices in the management of forest reserves and community forests aimed at improving the productivity of indigenous resources such as enrichment planting and buffer zone planting.
To establishing regulations and practices in the management of exotic plantations amenable with sound environment protection, to ensure ecological balance and biodiversity.
To rehabilitate existing wattle plantations (jungles) through clearfelling and applying appropriate silvicultural and forest practices to improve the productivity.

Afforestation/reforestation strategy to meet local demands

To establish individual and community woodlots of exotic and preferably indigenous species to provide the essential forest products to meet the needs of local people and industry, further to ease pressure from the indigenous resources.
To promote efficient use of fuelwood to release pressure from indigenous reserves through economizing the rate of consumption and introducing alternative sources of energy.
To develop with local communities methods to combat veld and forest fires and reduce fire hazards.
To increase seed and seedling production, especially of indigenous species, in government nurseries as well as encourage rural communities, schools and Non-Governmental Organizations to set up and operate their own forest nurseries.

Strategy to enhance opportunities and commercialization in small-scale forestry

To encourage diversification of forest products.
To promote the establishment of small business for forest contractors, harvesting, silviculture and nursery operations.
To provide incentives and support to local communities to participate in the wattle industry, focusing on production of bark for tanning, fuelwood, timber for building and fencing, pulp, etc.
To promote small-scale timber industries in the formal sector for furniture and other timber products.
To promote processing industries in the informal rural sector for the processing of wood (wattle and indigenous) and non-wood forest products such as bee-honey farming, mushrooms, silk production, vegetable tannin extraction, charcoal production, woodcarving, furniture, wild fruit farming, etc.
To seek local and external markets for large and small industries to enhance the utilization of wood and non-wood products from indigenous, wattle and exotic plantations.

Supportive and institutional strategy

To reform policy and legislation by reviewing, updating and improving the existing policy and legislation and enacting a forest act for the effective management, conservation and utilization of forest resources.
To improve the research capability by setting up a forest research facility to enhance forest technology, with emphasis on the ecology and utilization of indigenous species.
To intensify human resources development through training at all levels to improve the present capability and capacity of the government forestry service to be able to effectively implement the forest policy and enforce legislation.
To improve the government forestry capacity by providing additional financial and physical resources to efficiently undertake its duties and responsibilities.
To increase awareness and knowledge of forestry practices to farmers and general public through extension training and education by various communication methods.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Lasschuit, P. 1993. Rural Household Energy Strategies in Swaziland. Milieukunde Universiteit van Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Meyer, K.R. 1972. Forest Industries Development in Swaziland. ECA / FAO. Forest Industries Advisory Group for Africa.

MoAC 1989. Forestry Development Programme and the Proposed Structure of the Forestry Section.

MoAC 1992. National Forestry Research Plan.

MoAC 1990 Swazi-German Inventory and Planning Project (SGFP) PN 85.2204.7 03.108. SGFP Reports Nod. 5 & 7.

Skarner, G. 1975. Forest Industries and Related Companies in Swaziland. FAO, Associate Expert.

Stokes, J.S. 1979. Draft Swaziland Forest Legislation, parts 1 & 2. (Unpublished).

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Predominantly MoAC, but with peripheral MNRE and MHUD involvement.

MINING ACTION PLAN

MINING POLICY

This policy is to provide directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above within the mining industry.

STATUS OF POLICY

Brief Draft Mining Policy, dated April 1996, by A.M. Vilakati.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Environment related

Alteration and destruction of landscapes and ecosystems.
Accumulation of waste, often hazardous.
Pollution of air, surface and ground water.
Health hazards due to unsafe operations or toxicity of mining materials (e.g. asbestos).
Rehabilitation of mines unsatisfactory; mining companies do not adhere to rehabilitation provisions as laid down in the mining licence.
Insufficient environmental mitigation measures and insufficient environmental planning capability.

General

Lack of proper planning of mining operations, especially with respect to coordination and continuity.
The mineral resources of Swaziland not fully exploited, e.g. the considerable coal reserves, including high quality low sulphur anthracite.
Low production and use of coal on the domestic market.
The effectiveness of the committees responsible for the assessment and analysis of applications by private investors.
The present mining act outdated and no longer suited to provide the comprehensive regulatory policies for present day mineral exploitation.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Essential in the mining policy is a Constitution Article stating that all mineral rights and title are vested in the Ngwenyama in trust for the Swazi Nation.

Broad Overall Objective:

To achieve a sustainable, efficient and environmentally sound mining industry as integral part of the country's economy.

Policy Principles:

Mineral resources be optimally developed and efficiently exploited with safe and health protective mining practices.
The environmental impact of mineral extraction be critically assessed and evaluated following accepted standards.

Policy Practical Elements:

Sustained mineral resources management and exploration be promoted in order to ensure continued development of the mining industry.
Pollution and waste control be pursued in all mining operations.
The rehabilitation of affected land and water resources as a result of exploitation of mineral resources be fully integrated in the overall mining operation.

Policy Supportive Elements:

The mining legislation be revised, updated and fully implemented.
The role of Government in mining comprehensively be defined in terms of promotional, supportive and controlling activities.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

To develop and exploit the mineral resources of Swaziland based on sustainable management with the following principles:
- attractive legal and fiscal investment conditions;
- free market mechanism;
- maximum benefits;
- continuity in all operations.
To require the submission of an environmental plan and programme as a precondition for all mining operations. In addition regular environmental impacts management reports are required during the operational stage.
To include the rehabilitation of all mining sites such as quarries, open casts, subsurface mines and their affected surroundings in the mining licence of each operation, including full funding arrangements.
To revise the present mining act and implement a new act. The act must define arrangements of royalties, rent, taxes, etc., and prescribe operational procedures.
To appraise the mandate and responsibilities of the Department of Geological Survey and Mines and recommend institutional improvements, if required. The role of the Department to be assessed in the following fields:
- exploration;
- promotion of investment in mining;
- updating information systems;
- provision of infrastructure;
- pollution and environmental impact;
- rehabilitation.
Broad public awareness be created about the role and impact of the mineral industry.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITY

MNRE, in particular the Geological Survey and Mines Department, and MTEC (SEA).

This policy is to provide directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above within the mining industry.

BIODIVERSITY AND NATURE RESERVES ACTION PLAN

BIODIVERSITY AND NATURE RESERVES POLICY

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in biodiversity conservation and nature and wildlife preservation. There are strong links and interactions with other action plans, in particular soil conservation, forestry, settlement and tourism.

STATUS OF POLICY

Non-existent (drafts??)

ISSUES SUMMARY

Biodiversity

Negative effects of rapid population growth and changing consumption patterns on biodiversity.
Habitat destruction and fragmentation, with consequent species depletion due to increasing pressure on the environment and unsustainable use of resources.
Insufficient plant genetic resource conservation.
Polluted water of rivers and lakes resulting in impoverishment of fish populations.
Loss of indigenous knowledge and traditional values on one hand, and unsustainable traditional practices (use of plants and animals) on the other.
Insufficient knowledge and appreciation of indigenous ecosystems, flora and fauna, and the need for biodiversity conservation.
Occurrence of unique Swaziland ecosystems and plant species, e.g. cycads, which need protection.

Forestry and other production

Loss of biodiversity as a result of pollution through industry, including agroand forestry industries, use of fertilizers and pesticides, mining, urban waste and sewerage, etc.
Insufficient focus on developing positive linkages between nature conservation and sustainable production systems such as tourism, forestry, game farming.
Encroachment by invasive exotic species, especially from plantation forests (wattle, eucalyptus, pine).
Negative effects of plantation forestry, especially eucalyptus, on water resources and ecosystems in the same watershed.
Tendency to focus on monocultures in forestry and agricultural production.
Bush encroachment by indigenous species, e.g. Acacia nilotica, on abandoned arable land, leading to impoverished single species ecosystems.

Parks and reserves

Insufficient government interest and support in protection of ecosystems and developing parks and nature reserves.
No government investment policy for eco-tourism.
Management of parks and reserves leaves much room for improvement.
Lack of coordination and cooperation between national and privately owned reserves.
Parks and reserves too small in size to strongly compete in eco-tourism development.
Park facilities and diversity not the of the same standard as South African parks.
Trans-boundary park and reserve development opportunities.
Poaching.
Lack of adequately trained, equipped and motivated staff.

General

Lack of community participation in resource management and biodiversity conservation.
Private sector insufficiently involved in biodiversity conservation.
Role of NGO's needs to be defined.
Outdated, conflicting and fragmented legislation.
SNTC not providing extension service.
Shortage of trained personnel in genetic conservation and sustainable nature reserve management.
Lack of research priority for ecosystems and genetic resources.
Lack of recognition for conservation action taken.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad Overall Objectives:

To restore and maintain the biological genetic resources and to utilize bioand cultural diversity in a sustainable way for present and future needs.
To preserve the unique ecosystems of Swaziland through an expanding network of carefully selected and well managed nature reserves and parks, providing possibilities for recreation and income generation.

Policy Principles:

Biodiversity conservation be considered an investment which yields substantial local, national and global benefits.
Costs and benefits of biodiversity conservation be shared equitably among nations and people within nations.
Biological and physical resources be properly priced, including tradeable rights in their management.
Biodiversity conservation not be solely focused on species rich ecosystems, but also on culturally changed systems where people work and live.
Present agricultural and forestry policies which invite or result in degradation and loss of biodiversity be reformed.

Policy Practical Elements:

Biodiversity programmes (plant and animal genetic resource conservation as well as cultural conservation) be promoted not only in protected indigenous natural habitat areas, but also in production areas with human influenced ecosystems.
Benefits of biodiversity be emphasized as evident in tourism, agriculture, settlement, energy, health, etc.
Emphasis be given to programmes which benefit the local people.
Protected areas be proclaimed in all ecologically important parts of the country, ensuring on one hand a fair distribution over the country, but on the other promoting economically viable zones and concentration.
eco-tourism be strongly promoted as a means to generate necessary funding for biodiversity programmes and protected area management.
Natural reserves and parks be expanded, linked and combined into well managed competitive and marketable units in support of the tourist industry.
Transboundary protection area and biosphere reserve development be given high priority.
Investment be promoted in biodiversity conservation and nature reserves development.

Policy Supportive Elements:

Communities be involved in biodiversity conservation programmes and stimulated to active participation in nature reserve management.
SNTC be strengthened and actively involved in protecting and controlling the environment.
Full use be made of support and opportunities offered through international conventions (Biodiversity Convention, Lusaka Agreement, CITES).
International cooperation and donor support be pursued in protected area management.
Research be promoted, especially in genetic resource conservation, with emphasis on international data transfer.
Existing legislation be appraised and comprehensive legislation be formulated, endorsed and implemented.
Education programmes and awareness campaigns be formulated and executed.
Institutional arrangements be revised and support strengthened, with SEAP in a coordinating role.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Effective biodiversity planning begins with the elaboration of national objectives derived from broad-based participation and consultation. Once a consensus is reached, practical national and international priorities can be defined for strengthening protected areas and enhancing their role in biodiversity conservation, supported by policy, legal and institutional reform, human resource development and investment.

The following five sections will highlight the strategic approach in biodiversity conservation. The general approach in the first section provides a framework for addressing biodiversity planning. The second section concentrates on the identification, hierarchical arrangement and prioritization of protectionworthy areas. The third section emphasizes on community participation, which is essential in all operations. The fourth and fifth sections contain brief sectoral specific and supportive strategies.

General strategic approach

Presently there is no comprehensive strategic approach towards the conservation of biodiversity. The practical approach suggested is to define specific biodiversity conservation programmes related to the predominant land use, linked with the level of the diversity and supported by practical methodologies. These are not different approaches, but complementary to each other and to be applied simultaneously.

Present land use approach

Each major land use is characterized by different levels of biodiversity, either present or achievable, which range from optimal levels in protected nature reserves to relatively low levels in populated and cultivated areas.

Yet, each of these land use categories has maximum possible biodiversity levels, and within these limits one should strive to achieve these levels. Overall strategies for major land uses are found at the levels one and two, national and rural action plans, including proposals for changes in land use. For Swaziland the following categories are suggested:

1. Protected and reserved areas. These include various subcategories, depending on the rate of interference and production levels allowed (ranging from conservation areas with controlled utilization to pure preservation areas).

2. Communal non arable land. Comprises two main categories, with very gradual transitions, namely (1) natural forests and woodlands and (2) rangeland (savannas and grassland). Most of this land is primarily used for grazing, with extraction as the secondary use.

3. Communal arable land. Predominantly mixed land use, together with grazing. Includes rural settlements.

4. Commercial agricultural monocultures.

5. Ranches, private and government.

6. Plantation forests.

7. Urban, peri-urban, mining areas.

Strategic elements

Strategic elements which need be addressed in biodiversity management plans include the following (numbers relate to above land uses):

Most of the policies and strategies in the overall biodiversity action plan relate to this category and need not repeated. Especially the next section on area identification is relevant.
The natural forest and rangeland category is of particular importance, covering more than half of the country.

Non or semi-commercial exotic forests and woodlots running wild, leading to massive invasion, especially of wattle, into indigenous systems. Alien species eradication and control needed.

Encroachment of other exotics, such as guava.

Indigenous forests, especially on steeper slopes and in valley bottoms under threat by invasive species.

Rehabilitation of rangelands, also taking into account other land use options.

Implementation livestock development policy.

Integrated land use planning based on people's participation, addressing land degradation, animal and crop production systems, resettlement and other options to improving productivity. Present operational project: Improving Land Use on Swazi Nation Land.

Most of the arable land is mixed with grazing land and is relatively well managed. The same strategy as for no. 2 applies, with the following applicable to the arable land part.

Maintenance of diversity of crops, especially traditional crops.
Control of fallow and abandoned land. There are gradual transitions from fallow land (1-3 years) and abandoned land with severe problems of bush encroachment, mainly Acacia nilotica and other Acacia spp., but also Dychrostachis cinerea. Underestimated but very serious problem in particular in the low rainfall areas of the Lowveld.
Human settlements with accompanying problems of waste disposal and pollution.
Integrated land use planning and project approach as no. 2.

4. Excessive uniformity of crop and crop varieties.

Overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Agro-industry

5. Ranches are to a large extent not optimally used.

Appraisal of functioning of underutilized ranches, both private and government (sisa!).
Planning for government farms kept in reserve.
Application livestock development policy.
Severe bush encroachment widespread. Biodiversity needs to be restored through reclamation and appropriate grazing practices.
Options of changing land use into nature reserve, wildlife management, game farming, etc.
Position of ranches in connection with zonation planning of biodiversity (see next section).

6 Environmental databases; checklists woody and herbaceous flora

Refuge function of plantation forest for fauna.
Eradication of invasive species (alien control measures) in peri-forestry zone
Management plans of conservation areas within forestry plantation. Issues are size and viability of the protected ecosystems.
Overall management of soil and water resources (catchment management plans). Effects on groundwater flow and drainage.
Pollution as a result of the associated wood and timber industry.
Forestry extension plans for both TDL and SNL.
EIA.
Monitoring through environmental auditing
Communal use of plantation forest.
Efficient use of wood waste for energy. Provision to communities.

7. The urban, peri-urban and mining areas are the most biodiversity sensitive and offer the least opportunities. Nevertheless, biodiversity conservation and restoration is extremely important to counterbalance negative effects emanating from industrial and mining activities. See also relevant action plans under level two urban and peri-urban.

Green belts with forests, parks, recreation, sports, social functions, etc., to be planned in especially the peri-urban areas.
Agriculture, in particular horticulture.
Degradation, pollution and uncontrolled waste disposal in the peri-urban zone in particular.
Forestry management is extremely important in the urban and peri-urban areas. An example of lack of management are the wattle and eucalyptus plantations around Mbabane. Used as illegal dumping sites and invading and destroying the natural ecosystems in the outer peri-urban zone.

Diversity level approach

The next useful approach is to distinguish macro-, mesoand micro-levels with regard to biodiversity. These can be linked with increasingly more detailed levels of diversity:

ecological diversity
species diversity
genetic diversity (genes and genotype diversity within each species)

In addition to these three levels there is cultural diversity, which goes across the biodiversity levels.

Methodological approach

Two approaches are of essential importance for the study and practical application in biodiversity conservation.

The Agroecological Zoning (AEZ) provides a suitable framework for biodiversity planning and establishing linkages with present land use.
To Watershed Management methodology in conjunction with AEZ is the most useful vehicle for the study and planning especially of more detailed ecosystems.

Large scale watersheds go across agroecological zones, but smaller scale watersheds form a useful subdivision of AEZ.

Protected area and nature reserves identification strategy

The following strategy elements are of general application.

To identify national and international priorities for strengthening protected areas and enhancing their role in biodiversity conservation.
Review current proposals for nature reserves and protected areas in relation to general development and socio-economic aspirations.
To formulate short, medium and long term plans for protection of biodiversity, including landscapes and cultural sites.
To promote and closely involve private land owners in the development and sustainable management of protected zones and areas.
To include the peri-protected zone in general biodiversity conservation planning by promoting suitable and sustainable land uses such as wildlife management and game farming.

Hierarchical planning is a useful approach in the stratification and grouping of areas which need protection. The leading first level strategy should be large scale international zonation of biosphere reserves and transboundary protection areas.

At the second level protected ecosystem networks or core conservation zones should be identified, consisting of components such as rare natural habitats, habitats for endangered species, ecologically or culturally sensitive sites, landscapes, forests, parks, connecting corridors, etc.

At the third level reference sites should be identified, preferably within the networks, but not limited to. Reference sites are representative of ecosystems, and where disturbed, restoration should be pursued. Reference sites are especially functional in forestry systems, where they are used as models with minimum standards applicable to ecologically responsible forest use.

The point of departure for the identification of national conservation areas is the 1978 report on the National Protectionworthy Areas Survey, of which an summary is also found in NDPD. This report must now be evaluated and reappraised in the light of present international and national developments.

The following international projects are particularly relevant:

Global Environment Facility Transfrontier Conservation Areas . Four projects to link important conservation areas in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. One of them to also include the Lebombo range in Swaziland.
IUCN/WWF Centres of Plant Diversity: Maputaland-Pondoland Region . Includes the Lebombo Range as an area with extreme biodiversity, enhancing the arguments for proposing the Swaziland-Mozambique Biodiversity Corridor.
Kwazulu/Natal Consolidation Plan . Plan to integrate the northern conservation areas, which are bordering Swaziland, as well as Mozambique.
Swaziland-Mozambique Ecozone proposal . This idea of this proposal is to develop the concept of a biodiversity corridor from Mozambique across northern Swaziland to Malolotja. eco-tourism can help make biodiversity conservation sustainable, provided the country develops solid marketable products.
Maputo Corridor . The development of this transport corridor will have major implications for regional development and tourism.

Community participation strategy

To promote community participation and empowerment in the management and utilization of protected areas and nature reserves, though the following activities:

ensure the incorporation of local expertise in biodiversity research programmes;
give due recognition to customary rights, traditional lifestyles, knowledge and use of biological resources;
plan and implement communal wildlife and other resource utilization projects;
involve local people, especially woman, in initial biodiversity inventories;
make biological information and plan proposals accessible to local people in understandable language;
provide substantial shares of increased economic benefits from biodiversity to local communities;
make sustainable arrangements with traditional healers to obtain required plants and animals; regulate the increasing demand from across the border;
regulate the sustainable extraction of items of cultural significance;
provide incentives for habitat protection;
provide incentives for cultural heritage site management.

Sectoral specific strategies

A number of sectoral strategies are briefly mentioned. These can be further worked out in more detailed action plans. In a number of cases ideas for future activities have already been identified and formulated by the responsible sections.

The forestry section to continue updating a national inventory of flora and forest fauna.
The forestry section to liaise with the commercial forestry sector to maintain forest diversity.
To update and computerize the National Herbarium database, including information on habitat and ecosystems.
To continue maintaining and expanding the gene banks on indigenous and crop species.
To establish a botanical garden in Swaziland.
To strictly regulate the transfer of species and genetic resources, including their release into the wild.
To work out present proposals for flora reserves in conjunction with the overall planning for nature reserves.
The fisheries section to make inventory updates of indigenous species distributions and to formulate plans for diversity conservation.

Supportive strategies

To monitor government and private parks and wildlife programmes, evaluate their impacts and revise accordingly.
To train more staff as ecologists, taxonomists, wildlife specialists, etc. through formal and in-service training.
To revise and update present acts, and integrate into comprehensive legislation covering all aspects of biodiversity.
To formulate educational programmes and campaigns to increase biodiversity awareness at all levels of the population.
To implement institutional improvement, notably SNTC to become active in identification, expansion, management and control of conservation areas.
To consider transfer of the Herbarium and Plant Genetic Conservation sections to within SEA in order to concentrate biodiversity conservation activities.
To promote international and national transfer of information and technology.
To establish funds for protection and rehabilitation of the environment and biodiversity.
To introduce tax incentives on one hand and penalty systems on the other for companies which operate in environmentally acceptable, respectively unacceptable ways.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITY

MTEC, in particular the Swaziland Environment Authority and the National Trust Commission, but with involvement of other ministries, notably MNRE and MOAC.

RURAL WATER DEVELOPMENT ACTION PLAN

RURAL WATER DEVELOPMENT POLICY

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in the development of water for rural purposes. Emphasis is on Rural Water Supply for domestic use, including public amenities. Other rural uses include water for livestock, irrigation and agroand other rural industries. Water development for livestock and irrigation is further dealt with at level four. Water used for agro-industries is part of the Urban Action Plan.

STATUS OF POLICY

Draft policy by the Rural Water Supply Board, dated October 1994, entitled 'Development of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in Swaziland'.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Environment related

Erosion, siltation of water reservoirs and contamination of surface water caused by livestock.
Pollution of surface and ground water by industries and individuals.
Pollution of surface and ground water by the use of fertilizers and pesticides.
Lack of public awareness of health and environmental hazards caused by contaminated water.

General

Insufficient access to safe water supply and proper sanitation (less than 40 percent of the rural population).
Population growth: extremely difficult to provide water and sanitation services at the same pace as the high population growth.
Lack of political will: long-term infrastructure development often given low priority status.
Women have sole responsibility for providing domestic water.
Community participation not adequately integrated in government projects; current lack of local ownership.
Dependence on donor funding hampers smooth and continuous planning and implementation.
Boundary disputes between chieftaincies have negative effects on agreement on water rights and project implementation.

Technical

Lack of standardization; sector agencies (GOS and NGOs) employ various standards of design and construction for water supply and sanitation schemes.
Need for research and/or transfer of appropriate technology.
Problems of maintenance: the biggest single factor mitigating against continuous supply of safe water and sanitation.

Institutional

Insufficient linkages and coordination between water supply and sanitation, health, education and environmental protection.
Lack of intra and inter-sectoral coordination in technical implementation.
Inadequate human resource development, resulting in shortage of trained staff.
Lack of reliable information; available data scattered, unconsolidated and difficult to analyse.
Insufficient legislation, or not implemented.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad Overall Objectives:

To extend access to safe drinking water and appropriate sanitation to the whole population.
To achieve a sustainable balance in the use of rural water for the different needs and purposes.

Policy Principles:

Several policy principles have already been identified at higher levels. One that deserves to be repeated is the policy to give priority in water development to domestic use.

Access to safe water supplies and appropriate sanitation be increased at the fastest possible rate.
Priority be given to areas with greatest needs.

Policy Practical Elements:

Rural water development planning be integrated with overall land use planning, especially infrastructural improvements and resettlement.
Water supply and sanitation planning and implementation be fully coordinated and integrated with primary health care and other related development programmes.
Rehabilitation of substandard water supply and sanitary systems be considered as part of the access increase programme.
Accepted technical standards of design and construction be fully applied in all project implementation.
International water quality guidelines be applied.
Community participation and responsibility sharing be fully integrated in water and sanitation development and maintenance programmes.
Transitional substandard improvements of the domestic water supply as by small dams be given proper attention and support.

Policy Supportive Elements:

The commitment of Swaziland Government and the position and responsibility of CRDB and other institutions be clearly defined.
Legislation be updated and implemented.
Public awareness of water and sanitation related diseases be increased.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Most of the strategy elements in this section relate to rational use of water at the community level.

To fully integrate water development with overall land use plans, especially with respect to conservation, infrastructural improvements and resettlement.
To make comprehensive plans for the use of water for all requirements, such as domestic purposes, livestock, fisheries, small-scale irrigation, etc.
To implement all projects through people's participation, accompanied by community training in health and environmental aspects.
To shift responsibility for the operation and maintenance of community water works to community water committees.
To appraise the role of temporary substandard water supply as a means to improve the present situation on a transitional basis. Small dams can play an important role in improving domestic water supply, provided necessary measures are taken.
To revise the present RWSB strategy of water point connections in view of the present review of settlement policies toward concentrated forms of settlement.
To define precise targets in time and coverage for the planning and implementation of the safe water and sanitation programme, with secure funding commitments.
To design and construct water systems and latrines following accepted standards and low cost labour intensive technologies.
To monitor and inspect water quality on a regular basis, using accepted standards and methods.
To coordinate planning and implementation of rural water development through a central water authority, liaising with all parties involved.
To assess needs for training and manpower development and formulate programmes to enhance technical capabilities of the relevant institutions, especially with respect to design and construction, identification of priorities and execution of overall supervision.
To include information on water and sanitation related diseases in education programmes.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Principal responsibility with MNRE, involvement of MoHSW, MTEC, MoE and others.

RURAL SETTLEMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND INFRASTRUCTURE ACTION PLAN

RURAL SETTLEMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND INFRASTRUCTURE POLICY

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in rural settlement, environmental health and infrastructural development.

STATUS OF POLICY

No official policies available. Draft policy elements appear in various documents, such as NPDP, Maguga resettlement policy, and the draft Agricultural Land Use and Environmental Policy.

ISSUES SUMMARY

General/settlement

General rural living standards not satisfactory due to poor housing and inadequate electricity, water, telephone, road and public transport connections.
Present scattered rural settlement pattern not conducive to efficient provision of services and facilities.
Disruption by power lines of rural and ecological patterns; destruction of vegetation and fauna causing erosion and land degradation.
Severe environmental health problems due to contaminated water.
Lack of understanding by communities of relationship between health problems and pollution.
Lack of community participation and health facilities coordination in environmental health control, prevention and service delivery.

Roads/transport

Severe erosion caused by road construction.
Borrow pits for road construction material not rehabilitated.
Loss of indigenous vegetation in zone along newly constructed roads.
Lack of environmental guidelines for railways exploitation.
EIA not pursued in road construction.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad Overall Objectives:

To provide acceptable settlement and environmental health conditions through increased environmental management in conjunction with enhanced production opportunities, leading to improved rural livelihood and living conditions.
To promote and support rural development through expanded provision of infrastructural facilities and improvement of transport linkages.

Policy Principles:

Planning for settlement and infrastructure be integrated in overall land use planning and environmental management.
Settlement and infrastructure be planned with minimal disruption of existing rural and ecological patterns, and maximum safety measures.
People and communities affected by development projects be compensated in such way that their livelihood and living conditions remain at least equal.

Policy Practical Elements:

Settlement and resettlement be linked with provision of opportunities for improved production systems and increased income.
Environmental and human mitigation measures be included as integral part in development and resettlement programmes, with compensation arrangements for affected people and communities.
Environmental health care delivery and information be focused on communities.
Rural settlement be planned with integrated provisions for safe water delivery, proper sanitation and waste disposal.
Environmental conditions be monitored in settlement areas.
Rural supply systems be designed with maximum input by communities in operation and maintenance.
Roads and other infrastructural improvement be planned and executed with maximum economic and employment opportunities and access to services and facilities for communities.
Provision of electricity to rural areas be expanded and reliability be improved.
Telecommunication services be extended and intensified.

Policy Supportive Elements:

Legal frameworks for settlement, environmental health conditions and infrastructure be reviewed, updated and enforced.
Information and education systems in rural development be improved and made accessible to communities.
Institutional improvements of roads department to improve capability in planning and maintenance of the roads network.
The environmental evaluation capacity of the roads department be strengthened.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Rural development needs a better coordination and planning of settlement, including resettlement, environmental health conditions and infrastructural improvements. Comprehensive strategy guidelines need be developed, especially for sensitive interventions such as resettlement, with special attention to migitating the negative effects of displacement.

Detailed procedures and compensation arrangements are dealt with in specific action plans.

Considering the higher level rural action plan strategy with respect to settlement, i.e. planning towards a more concentrated form of rural settlement, it is essential to improve the coordination of government and NGO's with the CRDB.

Overall environmental health strategy is already outlined at level one national action plan.

Settlement and environmental health care strategy

To inform, consult and involve all affected parties in resettlement programmes, in particular in decision making, preparation, implementation and monitoring.
To introduce concentrated settlement patterns in order to provide better facilities.
To monitor progress of settlement and resettlement programmes and evaluate their impact.
To give special attention in resettlement programmes to vulnerable groups, and to minimize social disruption by offering options in nearby locations.
To increase the effectiveness of environmental health programmes for communities through better coordination of all involved parties and services (government, private, NGO's, communities).
To emphasize environmental management in settlement planning and implementation.
To promote educational programmes pointing out the dangers of pollution and improper waste disposal.
To recruit and train environmental monitoring officers operating from existing rural centres.

Infrastructure improvement strategy

To use environmentally friendly methods of construction of roads, connections of water, electricity, telephone, etc.
To make all planning and construction of infrastructure subject to EIA.
To increase road and other infrastructure related safety by including all the necessary provisions, such as fencing, warnings, pedestrian safeways, etc in the planning and execution of projects.
To minimize the effects of road construction on the loss of indigenous vegetation and fauna through careful planning of the road alignment.
To minimize the impact of borrow pits by selecting the least harmful locations and by rehabilitation of the pits with the original soil and vegetation.
To reduce the risk of soil erosion along the road by constructing adequate drainage provisions and rehabilitation of the damaged strips along the road.
To create in RD the post of environmental evaluation officer to advise, appraise and review in all environmental matters related to road planning and construction.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITY

MHUD, MNRE, MOAC, MWC

TOURISM ACTION PLAN

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT POLICY

Strictly spoken the tourism development policy does not fall under the rural land and environmental policy. It is accommodated here considering that most tourism activities are related to rural land use and its environment, most prominently the nature reserves. However, it is obvious that strong links exist with the urban and peri-urban policies (e.g. accommodation, tourist markets, sports, recreation).

STATUS OF POLICY

Draft Swaziland National Tourism Development Policy available, prepared by the Ministry of Broadcasting, Information and Tourism (now the Ministry of Public Service and Information) (new Tourism Policy, 2001). This draft has a strong bias towards strengthening government capabilities and is weakly defined in terms of practical strategies.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Environment

Role and potential of eco-tourism insufficiently emphasized and promoted.
Importance of biodiversity in the overall context of ecology and tourism not adequately addressed.
Erosion and land degradation (along roads, hill sides, valleys, etc.) not conducive to tourism in general and eco-tourism in particular.
Pollution, waste and rubbish dumps occurring in areas with potential for tourism.
Inadequate ecological control of tourist attractions.
Insufficient development of national parks.

Management

Urgent need for a central tourism coordinating agency.
Lack of a comprehensive national tourism development policy and strategy.
Need to improve management of tourist sites and events.
Lack of community involvement in managing tourist attractions.
Lack of flexibility in the tourist industry to follow market developments and adapt to changes in the tourism sector.
Need to improve collaboration between the public and private sectors.
Lack of cooperation between owners/managers of game parks and nature reserves; there is competition rather than coordination.
Decline in occupation rate of hotels and other facilities.
Short duration of the average stay of tourists in Swaziland.
Favourable location of Swaziland in the region not optimally exploited.

Administration/Facilities

Insufficient promotion, advertising and marketing of Swaziland tourist attractions.
Constraints with immigration and customs operations, including opening hours of border posts, visa restrictions, luggage handling and import declarations.
Accessibility by air not favourable due to low flight frequencies, low capacity and airport irregularities.
Problems of tour operators with Customs Union permits.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad Overall Objective:

To establish, support and promote a sustainable, efficient and diversified tourist industry, based on the broad scala of integrated cultural and ecological attractions of Swaziland.

Policy Principles:

Tourism be developed in harmony with the cultural traditions and environmental values.
Tourism be considered as inextricably linked with the environment and natural resources and be managed accordingly.

Policy Practical Elements:

Changes in tourism patterns and tourists demands be adopted in the national strategy to increase efficient and profitable use of tourist facilities.
Tourism be promoted making full use of the scenic, environmental and biological diversity of Swaziland.
eco-tourism be promoted and developed as one of the key areas of tourist interest.
Archaeological, historical and cultural heritage sites be safeguarded and where possible made accessible for tourism.
Game park/nature reserve facilities be carefully appraised and monitored with respect to carrying capacity.
Tax on tourism be raised and the revenue be used for the management of natural and cultural resources.

Policy Supportive Elements:

Existing legislation be appraised and comprehensive legislation on tourism be formulated, endorsed and implemented.
Education programmes be introduced to emphasize the economic and environmental importance of tourism.
Tourism awareness campaigns be formulated and executed to identify opportunities for tourism and to introduce sustainable communal management of sites and attractions.
Research be conducted with respect to tourist markets in order to identify and analyse demands, priorities and preferences.
Institutional support be strengthened to promote tourism, with proper definition of one central coordinating body consisting of representatives of the public and private sectors.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Overall strategic approach

On the basis of the above proposed policy it is important to work out a coherent overall strategic framework in which the separate strategy elements and action plans will fit. On a national basis it is essential to define priorities in the development of tourism.

To develop tourism in zonal concentrations of major activities and attractions.

A pattern of small-scale elements and scattered locations is not attractive to the average tourist. Planning of zonal development should take advantage of recent regional developments and proposals, as the Maputo corridor and the proposed linkages of parks and reserves across the border in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. The Lebombo ridge of Swaziland forms an essential link in this chain (see annex).

To strongly promote eco-tourism as essential in the overall context of tourism, with strong emphasis on developing the potential of the communal rural areas.

Eco-tourism is one of the fastest growing forms of tourism. Swaziland has an excellent potential to develop eco-tourism. The biodiversity of the game parks and nature reserves should form the backbone, with cultural and historic attractions as added values. The communal rural areas are largely unexplored and unexploited in terms of eco-tourism. Programmes should be worked out for visiting rural areas in their natural environment, making contact with communities, seeing the daily routine in villages and homesteads.

The various options of eco-tourism need to be offered in attractive combinations and packages, supported by biophysical, cultural and historic background information as well as by accurate location and route descriptions.

To attract eco-tourism Swaziland has to ensure that the impact of tourism on the environment is minimal. Swaziland has also to demonstrate that her natural and ecological resources are sustainably managed. At present there is room for improvement. Environmental Impact Analysis has to be carried out in all relevant areas.

To ensure community participation in the planning, decision making, development and management of tourist attractions, especially if these occur associated with the community.

There are many opportunities to develop touristic activities managed by communities. Emphasis should be on the rural areas (see also under eco-tourism), but not be restricted. Also in urban and peri-urban areas communities can be involved in the running of tourist attractions, e.g. markets.

Community involvement can take place in many different ways, such as in the management of archaeological monuments and cultural sites (e.g. bushman paintings and engravings), folkloristic shows, handicraft production, introducing the traditional rural Swazi way of life, local markets, guidance to springs and caves, scenic walking routes showing the beauty of the landscape, picnic sites, impressive erosion sites, traditional land use, etc.

Communities need to be activated and guided in the development of tourism. Workshops and community meetings have to be arranged in order to make communities familiar with tourist opportunities and assist them with the planning.

To establish a National Tourism Development Board with representatives of all participants and beneficiaries in the tourist industry (government, NGO's, private sector, game park/reserves management, communities, tourist markets, etc.).

The coverage should be as wide as possible and also include representatives from sectors or departments where interests may be opposite to those of the tourist industry (e.g. roads, manufacturing industry, plantation forestry, agriculture). The board as such should also function as a forum.

Tasks include the following:

To enhance international cooperation.
To strengthen liaison with regional and international tourist organizations and institutions.
To promote intersectoral collaboration, especially between competing government ministries and departments.
To advise and assist communities in developing tourist opportunities.
To coordinate management of tourist sites with all stakeholders, including communities.

Practical strategy elements

To expand the tourism base in order to prolong the average stay of tourists in Swaziland.

This may be achieved by creating additional tourist locations and destinations or by making attractive combinations of existing ones. It is important to compare the offered tours and packages with comparable destinations in neighbouring South Africa, in terms of accommodation, quality, price, security and variety. The tourist industry in the region is very competitive.

To identify and prioritize places of touristic interest and to develop sites and attractions in an ecologically sound manner.
To coordinate, link and integrate small touristic components into attractive packages.
To identify and describe scenic routes to link cultural, historical and other interesting sites.

The above strategic points need to be addressed in a systematic way. The aim should be to define a variable and flexible set of well documented ecotrips and other tours. The following procedure can be applied, the first part with respect to the inventory of each individual site, the second to the formation of packages and ecotrips:

(1) Identify and categorize places of interest (cultural, historical, biophysical, landscape, preservation, etc.), actual and planned (see also annex).

Define and map the locations and access roads.

Collect background information.

Complete comprehensive documentation for each site.

(2) Combine sites and areas into packages of attractions with various length and interest, following the zonal approach (see annex).

Identify and describe scenic routes to link the tourist destinations.

Prepare documentation on ecotrips and other touristic tours, including maps and route descriptions.

To improve the infrastructure of tourist attractions, such as access roads, public facilities, water, electricity, communications, health service, emergency services, security.
To balance tourist activities with other major land uses such as forestry, agriculture, mining, industry etc., and where possible include these in the overall package of touristic destinations.
To link tourism arrangements with set dates and venues of major recurrent cultural events such as Umhlanga and Incwala. Dates need to be fixed far in advance to include the events on the international tourist calendar.
To further develop and secure international dual-location package tours with KwaZulu-Natal and Mphumalanga/Northern Transvaal destinations.

Operational and supportive strategies

Present recommendations as in the draft policy of the MTEC suggest a strong coordinating and active role of the Tourism Department in matters as promotion of tourism overseas. This should not be the responsibility for the government alone, but be one of the main tasks of the proposed Tourism Board. MTEC recommendations need be reviewed.

The most efficient way of promoting Swaziland tourism is probably not through the establishment of Swaziland tourist offices overseas and additional staff with embassies and consulates. Such operation is going to be very costly and its efficiency may be doubted. There are too few diplomatic posts to ensure a comprehensive coverage and network.

The preferred option would be to enhance the liaison of MTEC and the proposed Tourism Development Board with commercial tourist bureaus and tour operators.

To improve marketing, advertising, dissemination of information and sale of Swaziland tourist destinations through enhanced liaison of the Swaziland Government and Tourist Development Board with international tourist bureaus and tour operators.
To improve the information base on tourism, including statistical analysis and research.
To improve administrative support and planning in the Tourism Department though improving the training and budget facilities. In this respect an appraisal of the present capabilities and functioning would be required.
To review and extend border opening hours, including assessment of the feasibility to re-open the Mhlumeni border post.
To improve border services, including immigration and customs control. To introduce joint Swaziland/RSA single border stops.
To review and facilitate visa requirements for tourists in order to eliminate uncertainties, especially with individual travellers (from e.g. EU countries), which may influence the decision making on selecting holiday destinations.
To introduce Environmental Management Plans in order to improve the environmental aspects of hotel and other facilities (sewerage, solid waste treatment, water and energy saving, etc.).
To introduce a Tourist Tax System, which revenue should be used to support the Tourism Development Board and the rural communities in the management of touristic sites.
To improve licensing procedures for casinos.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Primarily MTEC, secondarily MNRE and MEE, but also with MOAC, MPWT, MHUD involvement.

RURAL ENERGY ACTION PLAN

RURAL ENERGY POLICY

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in energy development. The rural energy action plan has strong links with other action plans, particularly with forestry, settlements and infrastructure.

STATUS OF POLICY

The framework for an overall National Energy Policy is currently being formulated. A task force will be charged with producing the final policy.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Inadequate or unaffordable supply of energy; non-availability largely related to poverty.
Dispersed nature of homesteads makes provision of energy services, in particular electricity, difficult and expensive.
Wood reserves under pressure; the total annual wood consumption is estimated to exceed the total sustainable wood supply by 30 percent; role of indigenous woodlands not adequately addressed.
Community woodlot projects only partially successful.
Use of paraffin in households a source of health hazard, as is the long term exposure to wood and coal smoke.
Lack of promotion of fuel-efficient stoves.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad overall objective:

To ensure the provision of affordable and efficient sources of energy, both indigenous and imported, to improve living conditions and in particular welfare of women and children.

Policy principle:

A balanced variety of energy resources and technologies be promoted, including an energy market that encourages sustainability of the rural community environment.

Policy practical elements:

Priority be given to the development of local energy sources, especially in the short to medium term planning.
Electrification of rural areas be pursued, ensuring that connection costs and tariff structure make electricity accessible to large number of homesteads.
Priority given to improve energy services to rural areas with settlement concentration and economic activity initiatives.
Appropriate infrastructure be developed to ensure sustainable energy delivery.
Local entrepreneurs be supported to be key players in the energy supply chain.

Policy supportive elements:

Energy awareness be featured as a key element in environmental education of communities.
Information on energy options be promoted through the media, particularly radio.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

To appraise and reactivate the Community Woodlot project in collaboration with the Forestry Section of MoAC; emphasis to be given to indigenous species, but not excluding exotics, especially wattle.
To encourage the use of fuel-efficient stoves and to promote local production; to appraise the use of various sources of energy such as coal, wood, butane, paraffin, etc. with respect to cost, efficiency, pollution, health and safety.
To overcome the barrier of initial capital cost of connection for a supply of electricity through the Rural Electrification Study.
To pursue the development of alternative sources of energy such as solar, micro-hydro and biogas.
To promote integrated and balanced energy systems (solar for lighting and entertainment, gas for cooking, coal for heating, etc.) and to develop the infrastructure to support them.
To develop the recycling of wood waste from the plantation forestry as a cheap source of energy for communities.
To introduce incentives for conservation and efficient distribution of energy.
To involve and support the communities in energy planning and decision making processes; to encourage local business people to become involved in the supply chain.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Rural Household Energy Strategies in Swaziland, P.E. Lasschuit, August 1994 (IVAM)

Rural Electrification in Swaziland, Capricon, November 1996 (draft)

Swaziland: Issues and Options in the Energy Sector, UNDP/World Bank, 1987

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Primarily MNRE, but with involvement of many other ministries such as MoAC, MHUD, etc. MEPD, MEE, MPWT, MTEC.

PERI-URBAN LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN

STATUS OF POLICIES

See 2.2.0 above, wherein it is suggested that all Peri-urban Land and Environmental Policy issues be dealt with at the second level, to address the interaction between levels two and three rural and levels two and three urban policies.

RESIDENTIAL LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN

RESIDENTIAL LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

This policy is to deal with the social, economic and environmental impacts of residential land (including delivery and pricing), subject to the NLEP and ULEP provisions. Like peri-urban land and environmental policy, the activities and objectives of the Urban Development Project are to be closely coordinated with this policy.

STATUS OF POLICY

An Urban Housing Policy (complementary to this Action Plan) received cabinet approval in 1993, but has not as yet been implemented. Further, a National Report for Swaziland was prepared for Habitat II, which document is a key resource for this Action Plan. A Plot Pricing Policy has been formulated within MHUD which should be revisited as part of this exercise and examined in the context of the obligations under Habitat II.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Access to Housing

Inadequate serviced land for residential purposes for low-income households. Over half the urban population lives in informal settlements, with concomitant threats to environmental health.
The formal residential property market does not cater for the needs of the majority of urban residents.
High cost and low affordability of land and housing. Residential land is unaffordable to most, for many reasons inclusive of plot size requirements.
Housing finance availability, for low income groups in particular.
A high proportion of serviced and other land withheld from the market for speculative purposes (more specifically, to capture gains in land value resulting from public investments or general social and economic forces).
Surveyed and serviced land has not kept pace with land use requirements in certain market sectors, and exceeds demand in others.
The supply of affordable rental accommodation and the legal rights and obligations of both tenants and owners.

Infrastructure and Facilities

Insufficient infrastructure and services within urban areas.
A shortage of affordable, physically accessible and environmentally acceptable public transport.
The supply of and access to adequate quantities of safe drinking water.
Inadequate sanitation or environmentally sound waste management.
Access to employment, markets and retail outlets.
Access to power and communication services.
Safety and security.
Contamination of residential land (e.g. by asbestos and other environmental health aspects of construction) and the lack of awareness of same.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad overall objective

Provision of adequate and environmentally healthy shelter for all in urban areas.

Policy principles

All urban settlements be sustainably managed.
Urban densification be increased from the current low level to medium level, insofar as the densities remain compatible with social and environmental amenity.
Active participation of the private sector, both formal and informal, be encouraged in land and housing delivery.
Recognition of the right of access to adequate shelter of the destitute, in particular street children.
Houses be allowed to also serve as functional workplaces, within the parameters of environmental health and taking into account the economic realities typical of the locality.

Policy practical elements

Aspects of regulatory and legal frameworks be strengthened to enable markets to work, and those aspects that restrict the market without demonstrably redeeming social or environmental benefits be weakened or repealed.
Institute market and credit access for low-income earners, including involving local institutions in the provision of micro-credit.
Stimulate private sector investment in the housing market by encouraging joint ventures and providing clear coordination between the public and the private sector.

Policy supportive elements

Legal codes to facilitate small scale, corporate, and cooperative land development activities be revised, including to provision of access to credit to such bodies .
Local authorities to encourage the growth of suitable indigenous plants in residential areas.
Self-built housing be promoted within Structure Plans and Building Regulatory requirements.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General strategic approach

To enable property market forces to work, and channel them into socially and environmentally desirable directions. This will allow the identification of those whose socio-economic circumstances put them below the reach of potential ownership or rental market enfranchisement, who may then be targeted for humanitarian aid and shelter programmes.

Practical strategy elements

Residential Land Management

To incorporate a capacity for housing market assessment within the proposed nationwide Land Information System.
To investigate land allocation mechanisms to bring about more equitable distribution of land; in particular, to ensure strict compliance with terms of agreement of sale.
To simplify and ensure the transparency and accountability of procedures, mechanisms and forms used in connection with land transactions.
To reform land tenure in order to strengthen tenure security and facilitate the provision of infrastructure.
To encourage the enactment and market acceptance of tenure legislation (such as Sectional Titles) which promote densification to medium density levels.
To set government instruments in place to monitor property market performance for compliance with taxation and other laws.
To encourage the initiatives of the Water Services Corporation in the continued and extended supply of safe drinking water to urban areas, and the WSC's coordination with other urban service suppliers, and with other water providers.
To make full use of existing infrastructure in urban areas and encourage optimal population density on serviced land.
To develop mechanisms to periodically assess what is happening on the ground with regard to land rights in urban informal areas.
To increase access to training for private sector participants in urban land management and development.
To integrate the provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and solid waste management.
To assist NGO's in the provision of shelter for the destitute through government property management and other mechanisms as appropriate.

Housing finance

To establish cooperative housing societies (following the recommendations in Kaul report, below).
To expedite the implementation of the Basle accord, which gives a lower risk rating to banks' mortgage portfolios.
To stimulate the creation of new longer-term deposit instruments for banks eg "housing certificates with the same tax status as "share" investors have in the SBS.
To review legislation and institutions with a view to stimulating the capital market and forming a secondary mortgage market targeted to the relevant income groups.

Community participation strategy

To institute a participatory approach based primarily upon local government elections, but secondarily upon encouragement of special interest groups and NGOs, and community organisations for locale-specific issues.
To establish a formal liaison committee in each urban area to facilitate effective cooperation between traditional and modern authorities, in particular in tasks such as identification of the destitute.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Dlamini, M. The Habitable World: Promoting Sustainable Human Settlements Development. From the Proceedings of the National Seminar on Environment and Development, Royal Swazi Sun Convention Centre, 27-28 May 1993, John C. Macina, Uniswa, Ed.

MHUD 1996. Habitat II: National Report for Swaziland. Prepared for the "City Summit," Istanbul, June 1996. Refer HRDO, MHUD.

Kaul, S. 1996. Housing Finance for Low Income Households in Swaziland.A CFTC report to the MHUD, GoS.

World Bank 1996. Swaziland Financial Sector Study. Report No. 14985-SWA to the MoF, GoS.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MHUD, MNRE.

COMMERCIAL, RETAIL & INDUSTRIAL LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN

COMMERCIAL, RETAIL & INDUSTRIAL LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES

These three related policies are to address the specific issues around the commercial and industrial activities and properties, and in particular their adequacy in implementing the requirements of the NDS, NLEP and ULEP. The industrial policy is of particular relevance to the SEAP.

STATUS OF POLICIES

Non-existent. However, there are several legislative (and therefore de facto) policy provisions concerning solid and industrial waste; the 2000 Solid Waste Disposal Regulations under the SEA Act are of particular relevance.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Land

Historically created plot sizes often obstructive to current planning, retail, industrial and commercial requirements.
Commercial, retail and industrial activities are increasingly international, highlighting the pressures concerning national/international land ownership.
Lack of a rational commercial hierarchy.
Inadequate parking facilities to support commercial/retail uses.
The physical location, control and role of street vendors.

Environmental

Continuing contamination of air, water and land, despite scientific research proving or suggesting crippling, stunting, carcinogenic and other health-related effects.
A narrow focus on job creation, without reference to the broad, longer term economic and social effects of contamination.
Significant current and potential environmental health difficulties with current solid waste disposal sites.
Water used for agricultural and other industries, and its reintroduction into the environment after use.
Neither polluters, for example the transport industry, nor pollutants, for example by air or groundwater contamination, limit themselves to confined geographical areas.
Fuel tank leaks from service stations, oil and battery disposal from garages.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad Overall Objectives:

To ensure that access to suitable land is never an inhibiting factor for sustainable commercial, retail and industrial development.
To ensure that commercial, retail and industrial activity does not compromise the quality of life of anyone, in terms of the developmental potential of children and the health and lifespan of all citizens.
To ensure that Swaziland becomes and remains within all internationally accepted limits of commercial and industrial pollution.

Policy Principles:

Entrepreneurial activities be given the maximum encouragement and minimum impairment within clearly defined boundaries of equitably and environmentally sustainable development.
Everyone in Swaziland has the right to clean air, water, and land; conversely, no-one in Swaziland has the right to contaminate same without specific permission.

Policy Practical Elements:

Self-regulation within polluting industries and commercial/professional associations be encouraged.
Emission control be integrated in all vehicle transfer procedures and licensing provisions.

Policy Supportive Elements:

A National Environmental Audit be carried out as a matter of urgency, determining the nature, extent and consequences real and potential of environmental contamination.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General strategic approach

SEA to advise all lending institutions, public risk insurance companies and valuers of the possible consequences of contamination to the value of the land.
To advise polluters of their present and potential future responsibilities in cleaning up site contamination.
Local authorities to identify, isolate and monitor hazardous and toxic wastes in their dumps, and identify and develop sanitary land fills if the current sites do not meet environmental standards.
Local authorities to set up policing units for the enforcement of laws controlling waste disposal, littering etc.
To prohibit the siting of industrial facilities which are potentially hazardous to environmental health in residential areas, and the encroachment of residential uses to the proximity of such industrial facilities.
Formulate and institute strategies to safely and effectively manage the use of heavy metals, and as far as possible eliminate the uncontrolled exposure of heavy metals, in particular to women and children.

Sectoral specific strategies

Commercial and Retail Sector

To control and ban where practicable the sale and use of toxic agrochemicals, especially aldicarb, parathion, monocrotophos, dieldrin and DDT.
To introduce use control of toxic agrochemicals to include avoidance of spraying on windy days or in areas leaching to the water table, streams and rivers.
To ban the sale and use of lead paints.
To phase out leaded petrol, and at the same time introduce measures to limit the toxicity of unleaded petrol.
To prevent entry of photographic and dry cleaning wastes into the common public sewerage and solid waste disposal systems by setting up an independent disposal and recycling system.

Industrial Sector

To encourage industries to set up recycling or reuse plants within their premises or to embark on an environmentally sound treatment of their hazardous waste.
To encourage industries to adopt on a permanent basis, material and water saving techniques and to aim for zero discharge of effluent in the course of recycling, cooling and processing water.
Industries to set up programmes for the cleanup of old and abandoned dumping sites, and any other sites where they have deposited contaminants.
To encourage industries to improve their technical capacities in hazardous waste disposal.
To institute free market environmentalism practices to 1) discourage pollution (property rights) and 2) encourage sound environmental management ( tax reductions and other conducive benefits).
To set up monitoring facilities to register and record hazardous pollutants e.g. a register of asbestos in buildings, particularly old buildings and asbestos in contact with acid.
To set up oil recycling depots in local authorities.

Community participation strategy

Local authorities, in cooperation with NGO's and the SEA, to educate the public on the hazards of contaminants, and on environmentally-friendly practices such as recycling.
To encourage companies that create environmental impacts to support environmental organisations financially, materially and otherwise.
To target industrial safety officers for education towards ensuring that workers are environmentally literate and understand the environment in which they are working.

Supportive strategies

To consolidate, review and revise the pieces of scattered legislation, including occupational health and safety regulations, and ensure the continued enforcement of the resulting legislation.
To set up comprehensive information bases, linked to the proposed land information system, with one of the main objectives being to identify hazardous or potentially hazardous industrial areas.
To constitute management systems to ensure the systematic monitoring of the above.
To consolidate, review and revise the pieces of scattered legislation, update same in terms of new procedures for nucleotide disposal and newly introduced toxic pesticides etc., and ensure the continued enforcement of the resulting legislation.
To set up procedures for one-off and cyclic EIA's as appropriate.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Mavibela, S. The Clean World: Managing Chemicals and Waste. From the Proceedings of the National Seminar on Environment and Development, May, 1993. John C. Makina, Uniswa, Ed.

Mc Dermott, M. Site Contamination: Some International Effects on Property Values. From the Proceedings of the Annual Seminar of the Swaziland Institute of Valuers, November 1994. (Also in Annexure "C" of the Human Settlement Urbanisation and Environmental Health Working Group Report of the SEAP).

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITIES

MTEC, MEE, MNRE, MHUD, MoHSW.

GREEN BELT, AGRICULTURAL AND RECREATIONAL LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN

GREEN BELT, AGRICULTURAL AND RECREATIONAL LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

This policy is to address the issue of retaining areas of open space within urban environments parklands, sports areas, and areas reserved in perpetuity for agricultural use (for the richness of their soils or for social amenity). The policies so decided are to be implemented through the Structure Plans of the relevant local authorities. They are to be cross referenced with forestry, tourism and crop production policy.

STATUS OF POLICY

Non-existent, save for de facto policies incorporated in existing Structure Plans.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Much of the best arable land in Swaziland will be covered by urban development without appropriate safeguards.
The aesthetic impairment of hills face development.
Spatially undirected market forces will not allow any green belt, agricultural and recreational land to remain in urban areas once its development becomes economically rational.
Security problems in premises adjoining open areas, and unauthorised activities causing disturbances in open areas.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Broad overall objectives

To ensure the incorporation and management of open spaces within and around urban environments, and to encourage the protection and planting of indigenous flora within urban areas.
To ensure the adequate provision of parks, sport and recreational areas, common spaces and facilities, and plots of land for home gardening and urban agriculture and horticulture as appropriate.
Policy principles
Green spaces and vegetation cover in urban areas are to be considered essential for biological and hydrological balance and economic development and are to be treated as such.
Swaziland's supply of arable land in general and the soil fertility of the subject site in particular be considered in structure plans and thereby affect subdivision approvals.
Optimal use of productive land in urban areas be promoted to protect fragile ecosystems and environmentally vulnerable areas.
Landscapes and urban flora and fauna in open and green spaces be protected.
Productive and recreational green belts around urban agglomerations be established in order to protect their environment and contribute to the provision of food products.
The conservation and sustainable use of urban biodiversity be promoted, including forests, local habitats and species biodiversity.
The transition from rural to urban lifestyles should allow scope for gradual change, not solely abrupt change as is often currently the situation.

Policy practical elements

The proprietal right to development to alternate uses be made inactionable and non-transferable in the hands of the local authority.
Permitted uses be actioned as early and extensively as possible, insofar as occupied and utilised land pre-empts illegal occupation.
Management of each area of green belt, agricultural and recreational land be fully transparent and accountable, with appropriate rewards for effective management and penalties for mismanagement.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General strategic approach

To ensure the formulation and strict enforcement of Structure Plans incorporating green belt, agricultural and recreational land as permanent features of urban areas in Swaziland.

Practical strategy elements

Local authorities to create parks for the protection of endangered indigenous flora.
Local authorities, in cooperation with NGO's and the SEA, to encourage tree-planting programmes by schools, service clubs, and other community organisations.
Integrate healthy and environmentally sound agricultural activities such as permaculture into the planning of urban areas.
SEA/local authorities to stimulate the development of urban forestry and provide free tree-planting information e.g. recommended species, their recommended distances from foundations, water mains etc.

Community participation strategy

Local authorities to encourage the formation of neighbourhood watch organisations in all urban areas, and such organisations to include adjoining green areas in their purview.
Community organisations be established to manage designated enclosed areas wherein local communities, particularly those on small plots, may practice urban agriculture.
Local authorities and local communities to cooperate in the provision of recreational facilities accessible to all at minimal or no cost eg football pitches, volleyball courts.

Supportive strategies

Surveyor-general to liaise with local authorities re requirements for aerial photographic monitoring of green belt areas.
Strengthening of management capacities to monitor green areas, inclusive of privatisation of some activities, the education and cooperation of law enforcement organisations, and enhancing the capacities of local authorities in accordance with the provisions of the Urban Government Policy.

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITIES

MTEC, MHUD, MoAC, MNRE.