The Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP)

RECOMMENDED POLICY AND STRATEGY FRAMEWORK

1.8 BIODIVERSITY

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in biodiversity conservation and nature and wildlife preservation. There are strong links and interactions with other action plans, in particular urban and peri-urban, soil conservation, forestry, settlement and tourism.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Biodiversity

Negative effects of rapid population growth and changing consumption patterns on biodiversity.
Habitat destruction and fragmentation, with consequent species depletion due to increasing pressure on the environment and unsustainable use of resources.
Current systems promote unsustainable exploitation of biological reserves and fail to value the environment.
Insufficient plant genetic resource conservation.
Polluted water of rivers and lakes resulting in impoverishment of fish populations.
Loss of indigenous knowledge and traditional values on one hand, and unsustainable traditional practices (use of plants and animals) on the other.
Insufficient knowledge and appreciation of indigenous ecosystems, flora and fauna, and the need for biodiversity conservation.
Occurrence of unique Swaziland ecosystems and plant species, e.g. cycads, which need protection.
Invasive aliens such as guava, lantana, sesbania, Mauritian thorn.
Annual burning too frequent to protect biodiversity.

Forestry and other production

Loss of biodiversity as a result of pollution through industry, including agro- and forestry industries, use of fertilizers and pesticides, mining, urban waste and sewerage, etc.
Insufficient focus on developing positive linkages between nature conservation and sustainable production systems such as tourism, forestry, game farming.
Encroachment by invasive exotic species, especially wattle, but also eucalyptus and pine, forming a major thread to biodiversity.
Negative effects of plantation forestry, especially eucalyptus, on water resources and ecosystems in the same watershed.
Tendency to focus on monocultures in forestry and agricultural production, leading to genetic erosion.
Bush encroachment by indigenous species, e.g. Acacia nilotica, on abandoned arable land, leading to impoverished single species ecosystems.

Parks and reserves

Insufficient government interest and support in protection of ecosystems and developing parks and nature reserves.
No government investment policy for ecotourism.
Management of parks and reserves leaves much room for improvement.
Lack of coordination and cooperation between national and privately owned reserves.
Parks and reserves too small in size to strongly compete in ecotourism development.
Park facilities and diversity not of the same standard as South African parks.
Trans-boundary park and reserve development opportunities.
Poaching.
Lack of adequately trained, equipped and motivated staff.

General

Lack of community participation in resource management and biodiversity conservation.
Private sector insufficiently involved in biodiversity conservation.
Role of NGOs needs to be defined.
Outdated, conflicting and fragmented legislation.
SNTC not providing extension service.
Shortage of trained personnel in genetic conservation and sustainable nature reserve management.
Lack of research priority for ecosystems and genetic resources.
Lack of recognition for conservation action taken.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

Non-existent.

Broad Overall Objectives

To restore and maintain the biological genetic resources and to utilize bio- and cultural diversity in a sustainable way for present and future needs.
To preserve the unique ecosystems of Swaziland through an expanding network of carefully selected and well managed nature reserves and parks, providing possibilities for recreation and income generation.

Policy Principles

Biodiversity conservation be considered an investment which yields substantial local, national and global benefits.
Costs and benefits of biodiversity conservation be shared equitably among nations and people within nations.
Biological and physical resources be properly priced, including tradeable rights in their management.
Biodiversity conservation be focussed not solely on species rich ecosystems, but also on culturally changed systems where people work and live.
Present agricultural and forestry policies which invite or result in degradation and loss of biodiversity be reformed.

Policy Practical Elements

Biodiversity programmes (plant and animal genetic resource conservation as well as cultural conservation) be promoted not only in protected indigenous natural habitat areas, but also in production areas with human influenced ecosystems.
Benefits of biodiversity be emphasized as evident in tourism, agriculture, settlement, energy, health, etc.
Emphasis be given to programmes which benefit the local people.
Protected areas be proclaimed in all ecologically important parts of the country, ensuring on one hand a fair distribution over the country, but on the other promoting economically viable zones and concentration.
Ecotourism be strongly promoted as a means to generate necessary funding for biodiversity programmes and protected area management.
Natural reserves and parks be expanded, linked and combined into well managed competitive and marketable units in support of the tourist industry.
Transboundary protection area and biosphere reserve development be given high priority.
Investment be promoted in biodiversity conservation and nature reserves development.

Policy Supportive Elements

Communities and NGOs be involved in biodiversity conservation programmes and stimulated to active participation in nature reserve management.
SNTC be strengthened and actively involved in protecting and controlling the environment.
Full use be made of support and opportunities offered through international conventions (Biodiversity Convention, Lusaka Agreement, CITES).
International cooperation and donor support be pursued in protected area management.
Research be promoted, especially in genetic resource conservation, with emphasis on international data transfer.
Existing legislation be appraised and comprehensive legislation be formulated, endorsed and implemented.
Education programmes and awareness campaigns be formulated and executed.
Institutional arrangements and mandates be appraised and revised, with SEAP in a coordinating role.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Effective biodiversity planning begins with the elaboration of national objectives derived from broad-based participation and consultation. Once a consensus is reached, practical national and international priorities can be defined for strengthening protected areas and enhancing their role in biodiversity conservation, supported by policy, legal and institutional reform, human resource development and investment.

The following sections will highlight the strategic approach in biodiversity conservation. The general approach in the first section provides a framework for addressing biodiversity planning. The second section concentrates on the identification, categorization and prioritization of protectionworthy areas. Other sections emphasizes on diversity aspects of major land uses, community participation and supportive strategies.

General Strategic Approach based on land use

Presently there is no comprehensive strategic approach towards the conservation of biodiversity. The practical approach suggested is to define specific biodiversity conservation programmes related to the predominant land use, linked with the level of the diversity and supported by practical methodologies. These are not different approaches, but complementary to each other and to be applied simultaneously.

Each major land use is characterized by different levels of biodiversity, either present or achievable, which range from optimal levels in protected nature reserves to relatively low levels in populated and cultivated areas.

Yet, each of these land use categories has maximum possible biodiversity levels, and within these limits one should strive to achieve these levels. Overall strategies for major land uses are found at the levels one and two, national and rural action plans, including proposals for changes in land use. A practical broad classification for Swaziland gives the following categories:

Protected and reserved areas . These include various subcategories, depending on the rate of interference and production levels allowed (ranging from conservation areas with controlled utilization to pure preservation areas).
Communal arable and non arable land . The communal arable land is predominantly mixed land use, together with grazing, and includes rural settlements. The non-arable land comprises two main categories, with very gradual transitions, namely (1) natural forests and woodlands and (2) rangelands (savannas and grassland). Most of this land is primarily used for grazing, with extraction as the secondary use.
Plantation forests, ranches and commercial agricultural monocultures .
Urban, peri-urban, and mining areas .

Diversity level approach

In each of these major land use categories it is useful to distinguish macro-, meso- and micro-levels with regard to biodiversity. These can be linked with increasingly more detailed levels of diversity:

ecological diversity
species diversity
genetic diversity (genes and genotype diversity within each species)

In addition to these three levels there is cultural diversity, which goes across the biodiversity levels.

Methodological approach

Practical approaches with respect to the spatial distribution are essential tools in the study and application of biodiversity conservation. The integrated environmental management (IEM) approach provides a suitable framework, covering all relevant environmental aspects. Within this framework there are various methodologies which can be applied. Of particular relevance are the following two:

The Agroecological Zoning (AEZ) approach, providing a suitable framework for biodiversity planning and establishing linkages with present land use.
The Watershed Management approach, in conjunction with AEZ, is in particular useful for the study and planning of more detailed ecosystems and habitats.

Large scale watersheds go across agroecological zones, but smaller scale watersheds form a useful subdivision of AEZ.

The following sections highlight strategic elements which need to be addressed in biodiversity management plans. These are grouped following the broad land use categories identified above.

Protected area identification and development strategy

The following strategy elements have general application:

To identify national and international priorities for strengthening protected areas and enhancing their role in biodiversity conservation.
Review current proposals for nature reserves and protected areas in relation to general development and socio-economic aspirations.
To formulate short, medium and long term plans for protection of biodiversity, including landscapes and cultural sites.
To promote and closely involve private land owners in the development and sustainable management of protected zones and areas.
To give special attention to biodiversity conservation planning in the peri-protected zone, by promoting suitable and sustainable land uses such as wildlife management and game farming in the peri-protected zone.

Hierarchical planning is a useful approach in the stratification and grouping of areas which need protection. The leading first level strategy should be large scale international zonation of biosphere reserves and transboundary protection areas.

At the second level protected ecosystem networks or core conservation zones should be identified, consisting of components such as rare natural habitats, habitats for endangered species, ecologically or culturally sensitive sites, landscapes, forests, parks, connecting corridors, etc.

At the third level reference sites should be identified, preferably within the networks, but not limited to. Reference sites are representative of ecosystems, and where disturbed, restoration should be pursued. Reference sites are especially functional in forestry systems, where they are used as models with minimum standards applicable to ecologically responsible forest use.

Protected area management categories

All protected areas proclaimed under the Swaziland National Trust Commission Act as designated as nature reserves. Current legislation does not recognise different levels of protection. There is a need to recognize a scala of protected areas, with different levels of intensity, importance and management. This can be developed following the IUCN conservation categories (UNEP, 1995). Six categories are distinguished:

Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area. Scientific research, wilderness protection, limited recreation.
National Park. Outstanding significance, relatively large, not materially altered. Scientific, educational and recreational use.
National Monument/National Landmark. Relatively small areas focused on protection of specific features.
Habitat/Species Management Area. Protection of natural condition necessary for species, biotic communities and physical features. Some controlled harvesting may be permitted.
Protected Landscapes and Seascapes. Mixed cultural/natural landscapes of high scenic value, traditional land uses maintained, recreation and tourism.
Managed Resource Protected Area. Long-term protection and maintenance of biodiversity while providing sustainable flow of natural products, relatively large and predominantly unmodified natural and traditional systems.

These categories can be correlated with the above three levels. Level one corresponds with category VI, level two mainly with I, II, IV and V, and level three with III. Of particular interest to Swaziland are the categories IV, V and VI, especially so when additional protection areas are recognized. Category VI could be very relevant to Swaziland, considering the unique environmental and cultural conditions existing in large parts of the country. Introduction of these categories is considered essential for the promotion of ecotourism (see also next section).

Identification and international linkages The point of departure for the identification of national conservation areas is the 1978 report on the National Protectionworthy Areas Survey, of which an summary is also found in NPDP. This report must now be evaluated and reappraised in the light of present international and national developments.

The following international projects are particularly relevant:

Global Environment Facility Transfrontier Conservation Areas. Four projects to link important conservation areas in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. One of them to also include the Lebombo range in Swaziland.
IUCN/WWF Centres of Plant Diversity: Maputaland-Pondoland Region. Includes the Lebombo Range as an area with extreme biodiversity, enhancing the arguments for proposing the Swaziland-Mozambique Biodiversity Corridor.
Kwazulu/Natal Consolidation Plan. Plan to integrate the northern conservation areas, which are bordering Swaziland, as well as Mozambique.
Swaziland-Mozambique Ecozone proposal. This idea of this proposal is to develop the concept of a biodiversity corridor from Mozambique across northern Swaziland to Malolotja. Ecotourism can help make biodiversity conservation sustainable, provided the country develops solid marketable products.
Maputo Corridor. The development of this transport corridor will have major implications for regional development and tourism.
Lebombo Spatial Development Initiative. Trilateral South Africa - Mozambique - Swaziland exercise focusing on developing agriculture, tourism and related infrastructure.

Strategic elements in the communal grazing and arable areas

The communal natural forest, woodlands and rangelands cover is of particular importance, covering more than half of the country. The following elements need be included in biodiversity programmes. Reference is also made to the conservation strategy under 1.1.1.

Control and, if necessary, eradicate invasive alien tree species such as wattle to protect indigenous systems. Control of other exotic species, such as guava, lantana, sesbania, is also necessary.
Protect indigenous forests, especially on steeper slopes and in valley bottoms under threat by invasive species and over-exploitation.
Rehabilitate rangelands, including consideration of changing to other land uses. - Implement livestock development policy.
Base integrated land use planning needs on people's participation, addressing land degradation, animal and crop production systems, resettlement and other options to improving productivity. Present operational project: Improving Land Use on Swazi Nation Land.

Most of the arable land is mixed with grazing land and is relatively well managed. The same strategy as for the non arable applies, with the following additions:

Maintain diversity of crops, especially traditional crops.
Control fallow and abandoned land. There are gradual transitions from fallow land (1-3 years) to abandoned land with severe problems of bush encroachment, mainly Acacia nilotica and other Acacia spp., but also Dychrostachis cinerea. Underestimated but very serious problem in particular in the low rainfall areas of the Lowveld.
Improve human settlements management, particularly concerning problems of waste disposal and pollution.
Integrated land use planning and project approach as for communal grazing areas.

Strategic elements related to biodiversity protection in areas with commercial production

Plantation forests

Environmental databases; collate checklists of woody and herbaceous flora.
Emphasise the refuge function of plantation forest for fauna.
To eradication of invasive species from forestry plantations into the peri-forestry zone.
To provide management plans for conservation areas within forestry plantations; special attention to size and viability of protected ecosystems.
To introduce integrated environmental management of soil and water resources (catchment management plans), with special attention to groundwater flow and drainage.
To control pollution resulting from the associated wood and timber industry.
To provide forestry extension plans for both TDL and SNL.
To produce Environmental impact assessment (EIA) and annual environmental reports.
To regularly monitor plantations through environmental auditing.
To allow and promote the managed communal use of plantation forests.
To promote efficient use of wood waste for energy, including the provision to communities.

Ranches

Ranches are to a large extent not optimally used.

To appraise the functioning of underutilized ranches, both private and government.
To planning for the appropriate use of government farms currently kept in reserve.
Apply EIA in livestock development policy.
To restore biodiversity in areas of severe bush encroachment through reclamation and appropriate grazing practices.
Examine options of changing land use into nature reserve, wildlife management, game farming, etc.
Consider the position and use of ranches in connection with planning of biodiversity protection areas.

Commercial agricultural monocultures

Many of the points raised with regard to forestry also apply to the commercial monocultures. - Avoid excessive uniformity of crop and crop varieties.

To avoid overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
To monitor and control pollution and contamination by the agro-industries.

Strategic elements related to biodiversity in urban, peri-urban and mining areas

The urban, peri-urban and mining areas are the most biodiversity sensitive and offer the least opportunities. Nevertheless, biodiversity conservation and restoration is extremely important to counterbalance negative effects emanating from industrial and mining activities. See also relevant urban and peri-urban strategies and action plans (1.2 and 1.3).

Green belts with forests, parks, recreation, sports, social functions, etc.
Agriculture, in particular horticulture.
Degradation, pollution and uncontrolled waste disposal in the peri-urban zone in particular.
Forest management is extremely important in the urban and peri-urban areas. An example of lack of management are the wattle and eucalyptus plantations around Mbabane which are invading and destroying the natural ecosystems in the outer peri-urban zone. They are also used as illegal dumping sites.

Community participation and education strategy

To promote community participation and empowerment in the management and utilization of protected areas and nature reserves, though the following activities:
- formulate educational programmes and campaigns to increase biodiversity awareness at all levels of the population;
- ensure the incorporation of local expertise in biodiversity research programmes;
- give due recognition to customary rights, traditional lifestyles, knowledge and use of biological resources;
- plan and implement communal wildlife and other resource utilization projects;
- involve local people, especially woman, in initial biodiversity inventories;
- make biological information and plan proposals accessible to local people in understandable language;
- provide substantial shares of increased economic benefits from biodiversity to local communities;
- make sustainable arrangements with traditional healers to obtain required plants and animals; regulate the increasing demand from across the border;
- regulate the sustainable extraction of items of cultural significance;
- provide incentives for habitat protection;
- provide incentives for cultural heritage site management.

Supportive Strategies

Research/inventory

To continue updating a national inventory of flora and forest fauna.
To update and computerize the National Herbarium database, including information on habitat and ecosystems.
To continue maintaining and expanding the gene banks on indigenous and crop species.
To establish a botanical garden in Swaziland.
To work out present proposals for flora reserves in conjunction with the overall planning for nature reserves.
To promote international and national transfer of information and technology.
The Fisheries section to make inventory updates of indigenous species distributions and to formulate plans for diversity conservation.

Institutional

To monitor government and private parks and wildlife programmes, evaluate their impacts and revise accordingly.
To train more staff as ecologists, taxonomists, wildlife specialists, etc. through formal and in-service training.
To implement institutional improvement, notably of SNTC, to become active in identification, expansion, management and control of conservation areas.
To consider transfer Forestry and the Herbarium and Plant Genetic Conservation sections to MNRE or MTEC in order to concentrate biodiversity conservation activities.
To establish funds for protection and rehabilitation of the environment and biodiversity.

Legal

To revise and update present acts, and integrate into comprehensive legislation covering all aspects of biodiversity.
To introduce tax incentives on one hand and penalty systems on the other for companies which operate in environmentally acceptable, respectively unacceptable ways.
To strictly regulate the transfer of species and genetic resources, including their release into the wild.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

1978. Protection-worthy Areas Survey.
Masson, P. 1997. The Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity.
Remmelzwaal, A. 1996. Summary on Biodiversity and Nature Reserves Policy.
UNEP 1992. Convention on Biological Diversity.
UNEP 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MTEC, in particular the Environment Authority and the National Trust Commission, but with involvement of other ministries, notably MOAC and MNRE.