The Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP)

RECOMMENDED POLICY AND STRATEGY FRAMEWORK

This document is the proposed policy and strategy framework of the Swaziland Environment Action Plan (SEAP).

It is based largely on an analysis of the Report of the SEAP Technical Working Groups, ie.:

Human Settlements and Environmental Health
Infrastructure and Mining
Manufacturing, Industry and Tourism
water Resources and Climate
Biodiversity Management
Land Resources Management
Social and Economic Issues
Education and Public Awareness and Participation
Policy, Legal and Institutional Framework

It also contain input from a wide variety of existing relevant studies. It sets out both policy recommendations, and strategies for achieving those policy objectives.

This report therefore provides:

A hierarchically structured policy framework, the recommendations of the higher levels being the authority for the levels beneath them, and being themselves informed and prioritised by the requirements of same;
An issues summary;
Summary policy proposals, consisting of:
1. Status of Policy - a statement on the position on the status of each policy - if it exists, and if so in what status and form, and how it fits the present proposed structure;

2. Broad Overall Objectives

3. Policy Principles

4. Policy Practical Elements

5. Policy Supportive Elements;
Summary Strategy Proposals, consisting of recommendations concerning action on same, where necessary divided into "General Strategy" and "Practical Strategy", or any other subdivision as considered relevant;
Key Reference Material - highlighting those references of particular relevance to that level of the Action Plan (the full bibliographic reference can be found within the consolidated list of references annexed to this report);
Ministerial involvement - recommendations concerning ministerial involvement, based upon Legal Notice No. 194 of 1996 and the need for cross-sectoral strategies.

This framework is open-ended and provides the opportunity to expand as required; for instance, a separate fisheries policy could be added to rural land and environment.

It is hoped that this document will serve as a framework for holistic national policy development which is environmentally sound and for future planning of environmental strategies.

1 NATIONAL LAND AND ENVIRONMENT

The National Land and Environment Policy (NLEP) is to formally state which land and environmental related goals or broad objectives it is setting out to achieve, and to be a framework and guidance in achieving these objectives. For example, the goal may be to achieve efficient and sustainable land use throughout the kingdom, to use land to assist in developing the human resource to its highest potential, to maximise the economic return, etc.

Once that goal is decided, it is possible to define policies, develop strategies, prioritise activities and to weigh alternatives. For example, natural resource management, agricultural production, infrastructural and residential development all require clearly defined policies. Such policies provide a framework for development and help avoiding conflict situations. They include clear guidelines and instructions on the direction, timing and location of balanced and sustainable land development.

The broadly-focussed National Land and Environment Policy should address matters of land management, administration and legislation, and include but not necessarily be limited to the following issues:

Economic: macro and micro, with particular reference to land economy and affordability (enabling markets to work), and to basic living requirements of the entire population, and inclusive of all land-related economic activities, such as energy and tourism, especially ecotourism.
Environmental: with particular reference to conserving biodiversity, halting land degradation and employing sustainable land and water management practices.
Social/cultural: with particular reference to human settlements and rural to urban migration and its consequences.
Food security: especially the land and water related aspects of food production.
Land tenure: in particular arrangements related to Swazi Nation Land, Concession Land, Crown Land, Freehold Land, Farm Dwellers, Leasehold, and other proposals towards tenure.
Information: management of land and environment related information systems.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Environment, land use and resource management

National prioritization and spatial planning of major land uses (animal production, arable cropping, forestry, nature conservation, settlements, industry, tourism, etc.).
Environmental degradation/desertification (deforestation, declining biodiversity, loss of habitat, soil depletion, range and watershed degradation, etc.).
Invasion of alien flora and its consequences (genetic resources conservation).
Optimal land use presently not necessarily the current land use.
Current unsustainable land use and land and environmental management, leading to declining production, degradation and contamination.
Loss of arable land to settlements, industry, roads, power lines, dams, parks, etc.
Management of water resources and catchment areas; conservation of wetlands and riparian zones; quality, quantity and efficiency of water delivery; competition in use for irrigation, settlement and industry; transboundary implications.
Energy demands increasing, but present use inefficient; dependency on RSA power supply (90% of all electricity).
Improper balance of energy sources: alternative renewable energy sources not fully explored; coal insufficiently exploited; wood overexploited.
Air and water pollution, including transboundary spill-overs.
Disposal of waste, especially hazardous and toxic waste.
Disposal versus recycling of urban waste in peri-urban and rural zones.
Deficiencies in land and environmental databases/ information management and availability.
Insufficient preparedness to deal with disasters.
Insufficient, fragmented and scattered environmental and land legislation.
Acute shortage of qualified environment and resource management professionals in both the public and private sectors.

Land tenure, land economics, population

Rapid population growth (3.4% annually).
Rural to urban migration and urban encroachment (5% urbanization annually): the interdependence and complementarity of the urban and rural sectors.
The centrality of property rights in economic performance and wealth distribution, in particular land-related property rights and their role in a commercial context and in encouraging entrepreneurship.
Lack of accessibility of the property market to Swazi citizens and enabling property markets to work to the benefit of Swazis.
Land tenure's relevance in social, cultural, environmental and economic contexts.
Gender issues in land tenure and land use rights and their social effects.
Need to change fundamental social attitudes towards land management.
Inclusion of land and ecosystem functions as well as land resources values in national accounts.
Capital investment in infrastructure versus land quality improvement.
Unplanned and uncontrolled settlements development, without safe water supply, proper sanitation, waste disposal, etc.
Increase of environmental health related diseases; 80 percent of all diseases caused by contaminated water and improper sanitation, leading to unacceptable high mortality rates, especially of infants.
Acute shortage of qualified property professionals in both the public and private sectors.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

International sources of policy principles and practical policies include Agenda 21 on Environment and Development and its adoption in the SADC Regional Policy and Strategy, Habitat II (1996) and the Integrated Planning for Sustainable Use of Land Resources (FAO, 1995).

Relevant Swaziland documents include the draft 1995 National Physical Development Plan (NPDP), the Economic Vusela report and drafts and reports under the National Development Strategy (NDS). The NDS and in particular the NPDP should be instrumental in setting out the spatial priorities, including the agroecological zoning concept, for the main subdivision at the next hierarchical level of rural, peri-urban and urban land and environment policies, and providing guidelines for the interaction of these levels.

Status of Policy

Non-existent, despite calls for same by technical experts since at least 1983 (Nkambule), by His Majesty in 1993, by the National Workshop on Land Tenure in 1988, and by the Economic Vusela in 1995. However, under ESRA a draft National Land Policy is to be ready for cabinet approval by the end of 1997.

Broad Overall Objectives

To employ the land resource towards achieving the vision of the National Development Strategy.
To alleviate poverty as a major underlying cause of environmental degradation.
To achieve the best possible use of the land through optimal sustainable management of land and water resources, in support of equitable economic development.
To improve the linkage of rural settlements with the mainstream of economic, social and cultural life, towards assuring sustainable communities and safe environments, and reduce pressure on urban growth.
To improve the nation's environmental conservation status and reduce desertification and land degradation.
To preserve natural heritage, including genetic, species and habitat diversity and maintain ecosystems function and integrity.
To improve living conditions and provide adequate and affordable shelter for the entire population.
To provide opportunities for all for land access and legal security of tenure.
To reduce significant threats to human health, ecosystems and future development.
To provide an efficient and effective supply of energy with optimum utilization of indigenous energy resources.
To achieve food security through environmentally sound management practices.
To promote human development and capacity building.

Policy Principles

Human beings be entitled to a healthy productive life in harmony with nature.
The eradication of poverty be considered an essential precondition for sustainable land use.
That gender be eliminated as a criterion for allocation of land and other rights.
Land access and clearly defined and secure tenure are fundamental to the fights against poverty, inequity, overpopulation, ignorance, environmental degradation, and environmentally engendered illnesses and death.
Resources be shared and managed on an equitable and sustainable basis.
National land and environment policies be integrated with the policies guiding macroeconomic and social development.
Culture, heritage and social structures be recognized in resource management.
Markets be enabled to work, as the prime land and shelter delivery mechanism.
A choice of safe, reliable and affordable energy resources be made available to all.
The principle of free-market environmentalism be adopted and applied as the most powerful and efficient tool in the environmental regulatory framework.
Cost of pollution be born by the polluter, and liability and compensation for the victims of pollution be ensured.

Policy Practical Elements

Environment, Land Use and Resource Management:

Environmental protection rights be applied, in the sense that all are bestowed with the proprietorial right that the land, water and air used be uncontaminated.
Prioritization and spatial distribution of major land uses be based upon the agro-ecological zoning (AEZ) approach, with special reference to habitat and vegetation type differences.
Equitable, efficient and sustainable use be made of shared water resources, with priority for domestic use.
Conservation and rehabilitation of land and water resources be integrated into all productive systems.
Planning, management and evaluation systems for land and other natural resources be improved and strengthened.
Environmental assessment and monitoring (Environmental Impact Assessment - EIA) be integrated into land development.
Resource consumption be reduced through recycling and conservation.
Practical and sound standards and guidelines be set to control environmental pollution.
Priority be given to integration of renewable energy technologies, such as solar, biomass, hydro, etc., into the overall energy supply.
The reliance on women for the provision of energy sources and water be reduced.
Regional integration and global cooperation on environment and development be increased.
Mechanisms be created to ensure the active involvement and participation of all stakeholders, particularly local communities, in decisions on land use and environmental management.

Land Tenure, Land Economics, Population

Planning and decision making on zonation of urban, peri-urban and rural land be based on channelling short term social and market forces into desirable long term land use patterns.
Clearly defined, enforceable and transferable property rights, including land tenure, be expanded to include all property rights throughout the kingdom.
Land tenure arrangements be adapted to facilitate optimal sustainable development, being available to all Swazis, including women, through a wide tenure spectrum inclusive of the current SNL and freehold.
General access be provided to family planning services, with sufficient funding.
An enabling legal and institutional framework for a well-functioning property market be facilitated.
Linkages between urban centres and rural areas be maintained through efficient and affordable transport, information and communication systems.

Human Settlements and Environmental Health

Adequate shelter, infrastructure and services be made available at affordable financial and social cost, to all who are in need.
Levels of environmental quality required for sustainable management be defined for all types of human settlements.
Timely provision of land required for urban and rural settlement be pursued, after careful selection and thorough appraisal of other land use options.
Overall environmental conditions be improved to control environmental health hazards, and reduce infant and adult morbidity and mortality.

Policy Supportive Elements

Effective land, settlement, health and general environmental legislation be formulated and enforced.
The formation of property-related professional organisations be encouraged to facilitate appropriate standards of professional, ethical and environmentally aware behaviour.
Information systems on land, ecosystems, environmental health, energy, etc. be strengthened.
Institutional framework for planning and decision making be improved.
"Total Quality Management" systems and principles be applied as appropriate in Land management.
A mechanism or body with joint public and private sector membership be established to monitor the effectiveness of policy formulation.
Research and appropriate technological capacity be strengthened.
Education and public awareness on the importance of the environment, energy sources, land tenure, land markets and land resource management be expanded.
Apply appropriate fiscal measures, including expenditure, taxation, monetary and planning policies to promote the adequate supply of land.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Overall strategic approach

A new approach is necessary in sustainable land and environment related development, based on the following set of strategies:

To fully integrate environmental management and economic development planning.
To approach the planning and development of land and other natural resources in a holistic, integrated and cross-sectoral way.
To manage natural resources with shared responsibility.
To develop new partnerships on equitable basis and to involve all stakeholders in the decision making process.
To develop transparent, comprehensive and accessible systems for provision of land access and legal security of tenure.
To recognise the private sector as the prime mover in development, and to channel its energies towards sustainable development by clear direction.

One-sided sectoral approaches to land resource development are to be avoided as they may result in inappropriate use and degradation of resources. To adequately cover all sectors involved it is essential to develop new partnerships between departments, ministries, parastatals, NGO's, land-user associations, communities, individuals. Human resource development is the key to this strategic approach.

There is a need to assess present environmental conditions and trends, for which the following strategies were formulated by FAO (1995):

To develop and apply a framework for land use decision making based on land suitability and socio-economic evaluation.
To develop statistical and geo-referenced databases on land and environmental resources, on actual land uses and functions and on socio-economic conditions.

The development of the decision making framework and environmental databases in Swaziland has made good progress, but is still deficient in certain fields such as biotic resources. The information systems available can be used at various policy and decision making levels. Most of the direct application is at the lower hierarchical levels, especially rural and peri-urban.

Environmental protection strategy

In addition to the overall integrated environmental and development strategy, the following strategies specifically relate to environmental protection.

To modify national income accounts to make them reflect economic loss resulting from degradation of natural resources and loss of biodiversity.
SEA to determine a phased schedule (on the basis of allowing adequate time for polluters to amend current defiling practices) to introduce the enforceability of the "polluter pays the polluted" principle.
To audit the consumption of biologic resources in order to increase awareness of the balance between consumption and production.
To enforce, improve and monitor the implementation of the Environmental Audit, Assessment and Review Regulation with respect to all development projects.
To establish a monitoring and surveillance team to appraise the status of the environment on a country-wide basis.
To update and apply water quality standards.
To develop and apply air quality and noise pollution standards, including the phasing out of ozone depleting substances.
To monitor and control all polluting activities.
To improve and apply standards for the disposal of waste, as laid down in the Solid Waste Disposal Regulations.
To strengthen the advisory and information dissemination capacity of the Swaziland Environment Authority and the Swaziland National Trust Commission.
To strongly involve the private sector in reducing pollution and improving management of waste, including storage and discharge.
To include environmental performance as a criterion in tender evaluation, following the Environmental Management Manual.
To ratify and implement programmes of Environmental Conventions, and make efficient use of the Convention facilities in preparing and implementing national action programmes.
To increase disaster alertness and preparedness through efficient organization, plans and measures to deal with disasters in general and the effects of drought in particular.
To recognize and use indigenous knowledge systems in resource management.
To maintain and enhance biodiversity as part of all development programmes.
To introduce protected area management categories, comprising a wide range from Nature Reserves to community environmental conservation units.

Land tenure strategy

The greatest contribution that land tenure policy can make supportive of National Land Policy is to clarify property rights. The greater the clarity, the less the confusion, the more the potential to achieve the overall objectives of the national land and environment policy. The fundamental grounding of a land tenure policy is that all landed property rights reside in the Head of State unless delegated to a real or artificial person, unless evidenced in writing. History demonstrates that persons will not be motivated towards the above objectives without the possession of clearly defined and enforceable property rights.

The fundamental policy principle driving this category should therefore be that clearly defined and enforceable property rights be placed in the hands of as many individual Swazis as possible. That is, subject to the retention of all existing clearly defined de jure property rights, that all current de facto rights be made de jure by being evidenced in writing by His Majesty.

The Head of State to establish the authority to coordinate and deal with all land affairs and management of natural resources, to delineate all land, air and water property rights His Majesty sees fit to delegate to persons.
Develop and employ land codes and legal frameworks (for example a body of law, a cadastre, rules for property valuation and others) that define the nature of land and real property and all the rights that are formally recognized.
Such rights to be made enforceable, and guaranteed by the government.
Permit land exchange without undue restriction, and seek to constantly improve procedures towards making property transactions transparent and accountable.

National land use planning strategy

National land use planning is part of the practical strategy to achieve the overall development objectives, guided by the national land and environment policy and the policies identified in the various subsectors. Land use planning at national level provides a framework for balanced and sustainable rural, urban and peri-urban development.

At the national land and environment policy level there is therefore already a need to include an overall strategy on preferred land uses in the various zones and spheres of the country. For certain land uses, e.g. game and nature reserves, it is advantageous to have concentrations or zones. To avoid urban-rural conflicts, it is essential to have a clear strategy on which land to select for urban development and expansion, and how, when and where to plan for peri-urban transitions.

The differences in land suitability between the major agroecological zones of the country play an important role in the decision making process. Recommendations for such differentiated approach are available for Swaziland, and is further worked out at the rural and peri-urban land and environment policy levels. Comparison of the recommended land use with the present use shows that much of the land is not optimally used. Changing to another land use is often the most rational development option.

To define spatial priorities for major urban, peri-urban and rural land uses.
To apply changes in major land uses in order to sustainably develop degraded, high potential or underutilised land, following standard land use change recommendations:
- eroded land (mostly rangeland): to reclaim through crop production (if suitable), forestry or specific nature conservation measures;
- land with high arable potential currently under grazing or forest: to introduce crop production systems.
- not used, underutilized and reserved land: to evaluate and determine land suitability, to compare options and to select appropriate use(s). This category of land offers the best opportunities for urban use, settlement and introduction of new land use types such as nature reserves.
- low potential or abandoned arable land: To evaluate for urban use/settlement, animal production (game and livestock), nature reserves.

National water resources development strategy

A national water resources development strategy is necessary to improve the supply and use of water. The limits of the use of surface water have been reached, and improvement can only be achieved by enlarging the storage capacity. Ground water development takes place by means of boreholes, but selective use has to be made of ground water resources. There are no quantitative assessments available of the recharge of ground water. Present indications are that ground water resources have to be reserved for domestic purposes, drinking water for livestock, and to a certain extent also for small-scale irrigation and minor industries. The use of ground water should not be planned for large-scale irrigation and macro-industries.

To establish a central government department or agency, such as a National Water Authority, where all responsibility and decision making in water development is concentrated. One of the major tasks is the coordination of all aspects of water development planning, implementation and monitoring programmes, including transboundary arrangements.
To formulate a National Water Resources Policy which deals with all aspects of surface and ground water development, regulation, apportionment, etc. Of particular importance is long term planning, based on the analysis of future needs and requirements of water, and the distribution according to the main water uses (urban, industrial, agro-industrial, rural domestic, irrigation, energy generation) and waste water treatment.
To define water catchment management plans for the major river systems, including dams, major water works and uses, with special attention to monitoring of water flows.
To improve the water storage capacity, based on both large and small to medium dams, in order to deal with future demands and to expand irrigated crop production. Land and water use plans, including irrigation and conservation programmes, should be integrated in order to make full and sustainable use of the water resources.
To improve water apportionment, water conservation (water saving irrigation methods, purification techniques, storage, etc.) and surface water monitoring (pollution control).

Settlement and environmental health strategy

In addition to the general regulatory environmental protection strategy, specific strategies relate to improving environmental health and living conditions. Planning for human settlements is best achieved in zonal patterns, with a human settlement hierarchy linked to the national spatial strategy.

To plan and design affordable urban and rural settlement schemes on a nationwide scale, with acceptable standards of living and health criteria.
Government to introduce and pursue sustainable urban management by providing and maintaining adequate infrastructure, environmental health infrastructure, energy, roads and communications.
To introduce environmental monitoring in human settlements, especially in the peri-urban zone.
To implement national environmental health programmes with special attention to following aspects and components:
- safe water supply and sanitation
- pollution and solid waste control
- food safety, hygiene and security
- housing
- control of communicable diseases
- control of vermin (insects, rodents, etc.).
To develop innovative approaches of waste collection and encourage separation of waste according to different recycling and disposal methods.
To mobilize communities and neighbourhoods in solid waste collection and disposal; authorities to provide receptacles and satellite disposal sites and to encourage food for waste programmes in cleaning up operations.

Energy strategy

Energy strategy is of fundamental importance to the effective functioning of the economy and is a crucial factor in ensuring an acceptable standard of living for all. The strategies presented below attempt to provide adequate and appropriate energy supply along with an opportunity for the energy sector to minimise its impact on the environment. However, it is important to understand that some measures, although reducing environmental impact locally, may have environmental implications globally. The increase in electricity consumption in rural areas may reduce the number of trees that are cut for firewood. However, the impact of increased emissions from generators in South Africa will have environmental impact that should be considered.

To appraise major long term energy supply options: imported electricity from South Africa and Mozambique versus locally produced energy (hydropower and coal fired power stations).
To increase connection rates to the electricity grid in both urban and rural areas.
To permit excess electricity generating capacity installed within the local industry to supply national grid.
To gradually reduce reliance on petroleum and replace by alternative energy sources, such as ethanol.
To pursue optimal local use of the indigenous coal reserves.
To address the fuelwood supply and demand imbalance.
To further develop the recycling of wood waste from plantation forests.
To implement the Increased Utilization of Renewable Energy in Swaziland Action Plan.
To encourage the adoption of safe and fuel-efficient domestic energy end-use appliances.

Supportive strategic elements

The strategy needs to include supportive elements. For Swaziland it is important to make efficient use and benefit from regional data transfer and exchange of expertise.

Land and Environmental Integration

To institute a "land institutions audit" - that is, a systematic study of the legal institutions, legal instruments, and adjudicative processes affecting land, documenting the time, complexity and costs involved.
To introduce a comprehensive national Land Information System.
To design land transfer mechanisms and instruments financially accessible to low income groups: simplified, cheap and easily manageable systems providing land title security -for example, standard forms for land transactions.
To accelerate regional integration, capacity building and information transfer, and to promote shared environmental responsibility.
To establish and implement consultative mechanisms between those responsible for employment generation, environmental protection, protection of cultural heritage, resource mobilization and the maximization of resource efficiency.
To integrate land and shelter policies with policies for reducing poverty and creating jobs.
To reorient education and training programmes towards sustainable development.
To increase public awareness and make information available with regard to environmental and development problems.
To establish one single institution with the overall authority to coordinate and deal with all land affairs and management of land, water and other natural resources.
To improve coordination between environmental institutions and organizations through an effective coordinating mechanism established and operated by the Swaziland Environment Authority.
To review, update, coordinate and enforce comprehensive land and environment legislation.
To develop human resources in land economy/valuation and law, environmental management and law, environmental assessment and evaluation.
To prepare comprehensive inventories of publicly held land as part of the land use planning and prioritisation exercise.
To assess land supply and demand and collect, analyse and disseminate information, and determine groups whose needs remain unmet by market mechanisms.

Community Participation Strategy

To create an institutional framework which enables activities at the local level to be structured and coordinated in support of a coherent land management policy.
SEA to facilitate and cooperate with those religious organisations (eg Bahais), NGOs (eg Yonge Nawe) and service clubs (eg Rotary) that encourage environmental awareness.
Where appropriate, environmentally aware companies to be encouraged to promote their awareness in their advertising campaigns.
Environmental education to be transmitted as essentially complementary to customs and traditions. Traditional practices that subscribe to the sustainable use of the environment to be encouraged and publicised by the government, and those that are incompatible with same, and therefore ultimately destructive to the culture, to be discouraged or prohibited.
To target strategies to critical subject matters - eg, firewood, ploughing and planting, livestock, and natural disasters.
To create the post of Environmental Integration Coordinator within the National Curriculum Centre of the Ministry of Education, to adapt the subjects in the formal education curriculum towards raising environmental awareness.
SEA and the SNTC, in cooperation with tinkhundla, to create at least one environmental education centre for each of the four regions of Swaziland.
To encourage the role of the media in community education and participation.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

The key references at the higher levels are also key references for the levels below them.

Aitken, C. 1995. Report on Land Related Legislation.

Fakudze, P. 1996. Swaziland Environment Issues Paper. Supplement.

Farvaque/McAuslan 1992. Reforming Urban Land Policies and Institutions in Developing Countries.

GOS/MEPD 1995. Heading for Change - Report of the Economic Review Commission.

GOS/MHUD 1995. National Physical Development Plan, 1996-2006.

GOS/MHUD 1995. Swaziland National Report for Habitat II.

GOS/MHUD 1993. Towards a National Land Policy for Swaziland.

GOS/MNRE/UNDP 1993. Proceedings: National Seminar on Environment and Development.

GOS/MOAC/USAID 1988. Report of the National Workshop on Land Tenure in Swaziland.

Khimulu/Mushala 1994. Swaziland Environmental Issues Paper.

Matsebula, M. 1992. Development Goals in Swaziland.

McDermott, M. 1996. Issues Paper for the Swaziland Economic Vusela and NDS.

Remmelzwaal/Dlamini 1994. Present land Use Map of Swaziland.

Remmelzwaal/Vilakati 1994. Land Tenure Map of Swaziland.

Sagric International 1994 Land Information Management Strategic Plan.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Refer to Legal Notice No. 194 of 1996: including, but not necessarily limited to:

Prime Minister's Office (PMO): ESRA
Deputy Prime Minister's Office (DPMO): Tinkhundla, Regional Administration, Community Development, Disaster Relief Administration): Ministry of Tourism, Environment & Communications:
Ministry of Economic Planning and Development (MEPD): NDS, Population issues, statistics, census;
Ministry of Finance (MoF): Land - related Revenue Collection, Information Management;
Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy (MNRE): Land Resources, Valuation, Consolidation; Water, Wildlife, Game Act, National Trust, Mineral Resources, Energy, Surveys;
Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (MHUD): Urban Land, urban government including the fiscal cadastres, WSC, Housing & Human Settlements, Physical Planning [NPDP];
Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives (MOAC): Agricultural land administration and use, Livestock, Crops, Forestry, Fisheries, Soil conservation, Irrigation, Rural settlement;
Ministry of Enterprise & Employment (MEE): Industrial land;
Ministry of Justice (MoJ): Registry of Deeds, Legislation, Conveyancing;
Ministry of Public Service & Information (MPSI): Administration;
Ministry of Public Works & Transport (MPWT): Roads and government buildings, including government housing administration: Planning and administration of transport infrastructure.

1.1 RURAL LAND AND ENVIRONMENT

Subject to the objectives and priorities set out in the NLEP, this policy (RLEP) is broadly focused within a rural context, addressing such matters as rural land tenure and overall resource management. In particular, it should spatially prioritise major land uses and rural activities. This should be reflected in the NDS and NPDP, and should include full implementation of the AEZ concept. Sector related policies, such as agriculture, biodiversity, energy, tourism, etc., including linkages and interactions, are worked out at the next hierarchical level.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Environment

Protection of biodiversity and ecological values versus the need for food production.
Lack of rehabilitation of degraded land and inadequate soil conservation practices.
Increasing land degradation by roads, industry, settlements, etc.
Pollution of air, water and soil resources by industry, settlement and agriculture.
Role of traditional authorities inadequate in dealing with environmental matters.

Land use and management

Lack of planning and development control regulations.
Shortage of suitable arable and grazing land.
Present arable lands increasingly being abandoned, especially in the Lowveld.
Non- or inappropriate use of land, notably on government and private farms.
Lack of protection and proper use of prime agricultural land.
Mismatch between land use and land suitability.
Smallholder production versus large scale commercial farming.
Lack of involvement of rural population in decisions on land use.

Land tenure

Dominant influence of the major land tenure systems on rural land policy.
Present tenure arrangements restrictive to development and investment.
Boundary disputes remaining unsolved and remediation measures ineffective.
Lack of public knowledge on tenure issues.
Lack of clarity of farm dwellers and owners rights.
Gender inequity in land rights no longer acceptable.
Unofficial and unequal distribution in land allocation.

Social and economic factors, infrastructure

Women wholly responsible for woodfuel and water collection, which goes at the expense of more important activities such as child care, health and hygiene, food preparation, education, employment and other income generating activities.
Application of free market practices in property and produce, including restructuring of marketing and other social relationships.
Low rural incomes and lack of income opportunities for the rural population.
Inadequate infrastructure (roads, transport, energy supply, communications, etc.).
Scattered human settlement patterns.

Water resources

Degradation of water catchments due to uncontrolled settlement and development.
Inadequate arrangements and legislation for water apportionment.
Lack of water for livestock, irrigation, domestic use.
Insufficient and inadequate water harvesting.

Forestry

Unsustainable use of indigenous forest and woodland resources.
Insufficient supply of fuelwood and other wood products.
Negative effects of plantation forestry on biodiversity and water resources.

Institutional/legal aspects

Responsibility for land and water divided over various ministries and departments.
Fragmented land related legislation.
Lack of reinforcement of the law in land and environment matters.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

The rural policy level is the appropriate level to make overall and holistic decisions for the rural environment. It is essential at this level to make linkages between the major rural subsectors and achieve a proper balance with regard to the importance, priorities, role, place and interaction of the main rural land uses.

Broad overall objectives are defined with specific relevance to rural development. The policy principles and practical policy elements form the basis of the practical rural policy. The overall policy framework allows the formulation and design of strategies to achieve the objectives.

Status of Policy

Non-existent.

Broad Overall Objectives

To achieve a sustainable balance in the use of land, water and other natural resources between production systems, rural settlement and protection of the environment.
To maintain and improve biodiversity of indigenous and introduced ecosystems.
To diversify rural production systems and create new job opportunities.
To reform land tenure arrangements to ensure security and stimulate progressive land development.
To improve rural infrastructure and affordable sustainable energy supply.

Policy Principles

Land and water resources be sustainably managed and used for efficient production.
Areas of specific biologic, historic or cultural interest be reserved for preservation and recreation.
Consumption needs be integrated in the planning and implementation of agricultural production systems.
The economic rationale of farmers and households be recognized in policy interventions.
Sustainable human settlement be ensured in all rural development.
Empowerment of communities and especially women be pursued in decision making and management of resources.
Subject to the inviolability of all existing property rights, property rights be devolved to the primary users of those rights (inclusive of chiefly rights on SNL).
Markets for all property rights, inclusive of rights over produce, be enabled to work as efficiently as possible.

Practical policy elements

General

Integrated approach be pursued for land development and environmental management.
The agroecological zoning concept and land suitability be used for the planning and spatial distribution of major land uses.
Options and priorities of holistic rural development be carefully considered and decided in cross-sectoral context.
Changes in land use be controlled and regulated for optimal use of land resources and conservation of productive land.
Rural communities be actively involved and participating in the planning and decision making process on land use and resource management, in particular sources of energy.
Innovative production systems such as permaculture be introduced and stimulated.

Land tenure

The rights of all parties over land be evidenced in writing.
The potential be created for improvements in rural land practices to be rewarded by improvements in the strength of tenure.
Boundary conflicts between chieftaincies be solved in a legal and permanent manner.
Planning for sustainable use of purchased farms be pursued.

Agricultural crop production

Irrigated arable and tree crop production be further developed in areas suitable for irrigation, with preferential concentration on the low rainfall areas.
Rainfed arable and tree crop production be encouraged and developed in high rainfall areas, i.e. the suitable land of the Upper Middleveld and Highveld, and discouraged in low rainfall areas, i.e. Lower Middleveld and Lowveld.

Livestock production

Livestock production be developed in a rational balance with crop production according to suitability of the land: part of the animal production be shifted from Highveld/Upper Middleveld (high potential crop production areas) to Lower Middleveld/Lowveld (low potential crop production areas).

Forestry

Commercial plantation forestry be further developed only in Highveld areas with sufficient rainfall and low potential for agricultural use, taking care to keep the impact on the ecological and population balance at a minimal level.
Forestry be phased out in areas with high crop production potential.
Communal and commercial small woodlots be developed in areas with a need for forest products, complementary to indigenous woodlands.

Nature and wildlife reserves

Land for parks and nature reserves be selected after careful consideration of other land use options and the overall land use balance.
Very severely degraded and unproductive land temporarily or permanently be taken out of production and rehabilitated (conservation with protection).
Wildlife management areas be designated in areas adjacent to game and nature reserves.
Game farming be promoted in abandoned arable lands, land under rehabilitation and farms with heavy bush encroachment.

Settlement and infrastructure

Rural settlement be developed as compact residential concentrations in locations suitable for infrastructural improvements.
Settlement, infrastructure and rural industries be developed on land with low potential for agricultural production.
Energy supply be closely linked with settlement and infrastructure development through integrated rural planning.
Cheap rural electricity supply be promoted to compete with other energy sources.
The effects of road construction be minimized with respect to health, environment and social structures.
Road safety be increased, especially with respect to pedestrians and the hazard of stray cattle.

Rural water resources and supply

Adequate supply and efficient use of safe water be ensured for domestic, agricultural and other rural purposes.
Sustainable distribution of water for the various rural uses be determined according to agreed priorities and defined quantities for specific zones of the country.
In the overall distribution of water for rural purposes priority be given to the development of safe water supply and sanitation for the whole population.

Policy Supportive Elements

It may not be required to formulate a separate support policy at the rural level. Elements such as legislation, information and public awareness are already sufficiently covered at the national level, especially with regard to the relationship rural/peri-urban/urban. The lower sectoral levels are the appropriate place for working out specific supportive policies.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General Strategic Approach

The general strategy approach corresponds with the level one national policy.

To improve and strengthen planning, management and evaluation systems for land and land resources.
To strengthen institutions and coordinating mechanisms for land and land resources, so that they are fully able to implement policies and systems.
To create mechanisms which will ensure the active involvement and participation of all concerned (the stakeholders), particularly communities and people at the local level, in decision on land use and management.
To apply and further develop the existing framework for decision making.
To strengthen and apply the information base on the use, status and potential of the natural resources.
To ensure that policies, programmes and projects can be sustained by Government.

Planning strategy based on agroecological zoning

Practical strategies for rural land and environment are based on the defined policies. The framework for decision making and the required resource databases (Geographic Information Systems) are to a large extent already in place. This enables to make strategic decisions, based on the agroecological zoning (AEZ) of Swaziland.

The agroecological zones methodology provides a framework to organize and evaluate land resource data, including selection of alternative land uses, determination of climatic and soil requirements of these uses, the inventory of climate and soils combined in agro-ecological units, and classification into land suitability classes for the selected land uses.

The agroecological map of Swaziland provides the land resource data for land evaluation and land use planning. The distinguished agroecological units represent unique combinations of soil, terrain and agroclimatic conditions, defined by (1) the moisture zone, (2) the thermal zone, (3) the topography, and (4) the soils.

Existing land use is appraised against the suitability of the land, indicating three broad categories, namely properly utilized, improperly utilized and not or underutilized. The selection or change of the major land uses and production systems in a particular area is the central issue in rural land use planning. Once these are chosen, planning can be completed with the incorporation of the requirements for infrastructure, settlement, services, etc.

Based upon the main AEZ results an overall national strategy can be developed for major land uses. Rainfed crop production should be concentrated in the Upper Middleveld and Highveld, forestry in the Highveld and irrigated agriculture and livestock development in the Lowveld and Lower Middleveld. The specific sectoral strategies are further worked out at level three and four of the hierarchy.

Land tenure strategies are already placed at the highest (national) level of the hierarchy, but will recur at all lower levels. The land tenure system is one of the most influential elements with regard to the rural land and environment policy. A suitable and workable strategy with respect to tenure arrangements is a prerequisite for all rural development.

Land tenure

To achieve the property rights objective through the institutionalising of management and information management systems
To make an inventory of chieftaincies, including the marking of disputed areas with fuzzy boundaries and the description of tenure arrangements other than traditional communal SNL.

Agricultural crop production

To promote and develop irrigated arable and tree crop production in suitable areas, with emphasis on concentration in the Lower Middleveld and Lowveld.
To promote and develop rainfed arable and tree crop production in all suitable parts of the Upper Middleveld and Highveld. Rainfed production of most crops, with the exception of few such as cotton, to be discouraged in the Lower Middleveld and Lowveld.
To introduce diversified and more profitable production systems and change to farming systems with better returns.
To promote agro-industries and other rural industries and enterprises.

Livestock production

To develop and concentrate livestock production in those parts of Lower Middleveld and Lowveld not suitable for irrigated crop production.
To discontinue grazing in Highveld and Upper Middleveld on land with high potential for crop production, especially the severely degraded rangelands, and to shift the production to areas with low crop production potential.
To achieve a better national balance between crop production and livestock development based on land suitability. This implies a gradual shift of the main animal production from the high rainfall Highveld/Upper Middleveld to the low rainfall Lower Middleveld / Lowveld. Opportunities to be explored and utilized for expansion of the livestock production exist in the abandoned communal arable land areas and underutilized farms.

Forestry

To consider further expansion of commercial plantation forestry only in Highveld areas with sufficient rainfall and low potential for agricultural use. Care is to be taken not to disturb the ecological and population balance.
To phase out forestry plantations in areas with high crop production potential.
To prioritise and develop communal and commercial small woodlots in areas with a need for forest products, complementary to indigenous woodlands. Site selection is to be based on spatial distribution analysis and appraisal of existing forest and woodland resources.

Nature and wildlife reserves

To give high priority to further selection of land for natural parks and reserves to conserve biodiversity and promote ecotourism, aiming at enlargement and zonal concentration of reserved areas. Careful consideration is to be given to the overall balance of land uses, land suitability and options for other land use.
To apply conservation with protection to very severely degraded and unproductive land. Such land is to be taken out of production on a temporary or permanent basis in programmes aiming at rehabilitation. Depending on the success rate and other factors it may remain reserved or taken back into production.
To introduce wildlife management areas in degraded land areas, and especially in peri-conservation zones. Selection of locations to be determined as part of integrated planning together with natural parks and game farming areas.
To promote game farming in abandoned arable lands and farms with heavy bush encroachment.

Settlement, energy and infrastructure

To gradually develop rural settlements as compact residential concentrations in locations suitable for infrastructural improvements (especially relevant to development of purchased SNL farms and resettlement).
To plan the development of settlement, infrastructure and rural industries on land with low potential for agricultural production.
To fully integrate resettlement in the overall planning of shifts of major land uses, e.g. irrigation agriculture and grazing to Lowveld and rainfed crop production towards Upper Middleveld. Such operations are to be accompanied by providing options for rural income generating activities.
To promote the short term development of community woodlots (indigenous and exotic) to improve supply and to emphasise fuel substitution or improved end-use efficiency to reduce demand.
To introduce and promote cheap electricity in long term planning to gradually replace other non sustainable sources of energy.
To develop priority programmes to alleviate the burden of fuel and water collection for women, leading to improved opportunities for child care, education, income generating and other positive activities.
To assess needs for planning, upgrading and maintenance of roads to support rural development and tourism.
To evaluate railway expansion against road network development considering relevant environmental, social and economic aspects

Rural water resources and supply

To determine sustainable distribution of water for the various rural uses according to agreed priorities and defined quantities for specific zones of the country.
To give priority in the overall distribution of water for rural purposes to the development of safe water supply and sanitation for the whole population.
To extend the provision of telecommunications to levels acceptable to the rural population.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Bowen, P.N. 1993. Longing for Land.

Funnell, D.C. 1991. Under the Shadow of Apartheid.

Hughes, A.J.B. 1972. Land Tenure, Land Rights and Land Communities on Swazi Nation Land.

Nkambule, N.M. 1983. A Diagnosis of Adverse Effects of Customary Land Tenure on Land Use.

Remmelzwaal/Waveren 1994. Land Use Planning Handbook for Swaziland 1995. Agro-ecological Analysis of Swaziland.

Rose, L.L. 1992. The Politics of Harmony.

UNDP/FAO 1996. Terminal report Land Use Planning for Rational Use of Land and Water Resources Project.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Predominantly MNRE, DPMO, MTEC and MOAC: secondarily all other above Ministries, more especially MEPD, MHUD & MEE.

1.1.1 SOIL CONSERVATION

This policy is to focus solely on conservation problems, in particular towards implementing the broad principles enunciated in the National and Rural Land and Environment Policies. The higher level policies (as incorporated at the national level) set the overall framework for the more detailed soil conservation policy. Policy aspects and practical recommendations as brought forward by the National Awareness Workshop of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification are also reflected.

The soil conservation policy covers aspects related to rural land use, including crop and livestock production, forestry, rural infrastructure, etc. The emphasis of the policy is on the design of strategies and practical application.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Large proportion of Swaziland, notably the rangelands, affected by severe soil erosion and land degradation.
Population pressure on natural resources.
Unsustainable land use, including deforestation, settlements and infrastructure.
Lack of responsibility for proper resource management by most land users.
Lack of adequate soil conservation programmes and specialized extension service.
Inadequate, uncoordinated and decentralized control by a variety of responsible institutions and bodies (e.g. CRDB for SNL, NRB for TDL).
Insufficient and fragmented legislation, and lack of implementation.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

The soil conservation objectives and policies are part of the more general environment policy formulated at the higher national and rural levels. There are three main elements in the soil conservation policy: the status of the degradation, the resource management and the reclamation.

Status of Policy

Policy elements exist in old and fragmented legislation.

Broad Overall Objective

To reduce and control soil erosion and land degradation.

Policy Principles

Combating soil erosion and land degradation be given a high political priority.
Soil conservation be integrated in sustainable production systems.

Policy Practical Elements

Inventories of erosion and degradation be updated and degradation be monitored.
Prevention of erosion be promoted through anti-desertification programmes, with emphasis on resolving the physical and socio-economic causes of land degradation.
Sustainable management and resource responsibility be improved in all relevant sectors:
- animal production
- crop production
- forestry
- mining
- infrastructure/settlement.
Reclamation of degraded land be pursued, with priority given to cases with:
- health and related hazards
- damage to infrastructure
- resources with high production potential
- communities receptive to prevention and rehabilitation
- high feasibility of intervention measures.

Policy Supportive Elements

Existing soil conservation legislation be appraised and comprehensive legislation be formulated, endorsed and implemented.
Education programmes and awareness campaigns be formulated and executed.
Research into causes and remediation be promoted, making optimal use of transfer of technology.
Institutional support be strengthened, with proper definition of one central responsible institution.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

To update inventories information systems and monitor degradation through established systems (AELDA), including analysis of causes, applying appropriate tools such as remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems.
To determine suitable and sustainable production systems to replace systems leading to degradation of the environment, taking into account the specific conditions in the various agroecological zones.
To formalize land titles and land user's rights in order to increase responsibility for management of natural resources.
To improve range management, especially grazing practices and cattle movements, recognizing that this is the most important single cause of degradation.
To design and implement comprehensive and integrated conservation programmes to combat land degradation.
To protect and rehabilitate land and vegetation cover, especially in the following areas of concern:
- overgrazed areas
- grass strip maintenance
- burning
- removal of trees and woodland
- roads
- flood damage
- sensitive catchments
To identify priority areas for rehabilitation and estimate costs of recovery.
To control and advise on land allocation in degraded and vulnerable areas.
To suggest and promote alternative livelihood systems in areas prone to desertification.
To provide incentives and resources for the active involvement and participation of communities in soil conservation and reclamation as part of the overall land use and management. Communities and local leaders should be encouraged to formulate their own Land Use Management Plans to improve conservation and production through selecting sustainable systems, controlling livestock numbers, etc.
To establish a clear soil conservation control authority, linked with the Swaziland Environment Authority.
To review, reactivate and update existing legislation and formulate a new, efficient comprehensive legislation coordinated by SEA.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

GOS/MOAC/USAID 1991. Farmers' Handbook.

Jansen et al 1994. Actual Erosion and Land Degradation in Swaziland.

Osunade, M.A.A. 1994. Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Swaziland.

UNEP 1994. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification: Final Text.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Predominantly MOAC, MTEC & MNRE, but with MPWT, MHUD & MEE involvement.

1.1.2 AGRICULTURAL LAND USE

This policy has a narrower focus than either level one or level two policies, confined to agricultural land use and environment, and is subject to the recommendations of both the national land and environment policy and the rural land and environment policy. Its recommendations should be compatible with other policies at the third level of the hierarchy, for example the Soil Conservation Policy.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Agricultural production

Food security demands.
Overall balance of agricultural systems: crop versus livestock production.
Cash crops versus staple food.
Maize production versus diversification.
Large-scale versus small scale farming.
Commercialization of farming systems on SNL.
Low and unreliable crop yields.
Effects of drought on production levels.

Land tenure

Lack of security of tenure on SNL.
Lack of transparency in land allocation procedures.
Speculative subdivision of TDL farms.

Land use planning

Mismatch between land suitability and actual land use.
Loss of prime agricultural land to other land uses, notably urban.
Shortage of suitable land for agricultural production.
Abandoned arable land on SNL.
Inefficient rural settlement pattern occupying high potential land.
Non- or underutilization of farms, both TDL and purchased SNL.
Lack of integrated planning for purchased Swazi Nation Land.
Inadequate planning and management of water resources.

Management

Low farm management levels.
Inadequate central and household storage capacities.
Insufficient transport and marketing systems.
Uncontrolled use of fertilizers and pesticides.
Obsolete price policies and agricultural subsidies.

Land degradation

Unsustainable land use leading to degradation.
Severe degradation of rangelands.
Bush encroachment on grazing land and fallow arable land.
Erosion and depletion of soil resources.
Inadequate soil conservation practices.

Institutions and support services

Institutional and administrative weaknesses.
Functioning and requirements of agricultural extension service.
Functioning and supportive role of agricultural research.
Insufficient provisions in existing legislation to protect agricultural land.
Lack of finance delivery to smallholders.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

A draft National Agricultural Land Use Policy was prepared in 1994, but has not been submitted to cabinet. A new draft, capturing many of the recommendations of the 1994 draft, should be prepared under this hierarchical structure.

Broad Overall Objectives

The broad agricultural objectives as identified in the eighties relate to improving (1) food self-sufficiency, (2) nutrients levels, (3) exports, (4) employment and (5) rural income. These objectives are all interrelated, in the sense that they all depend on the existence of efficient production systems. There are strong arguments to consider food security as a more meaningful objective than food self-sufficiency. Food security is a complex objective which can only partially achieved within the context of national agricultural production. Overall objectives are redefined as follows:

To achieve efficient and sustainable agricultural production systems in support of economic growth and export.
To make optimal contributions to food security and consumption requirements.
To provide increased income generating opportunities and to secure sustainable livelihoods for farmers and the rural population.

Policy Principles

Many of the policy elements in the Agricultural Land Use and Environment Policy relate to the National and Rural Land and Environmental Policies. There is a necessary overlap to ascertain that the Agricultural Land Use and Environment Policy contains all essential elements relevant to its application.

Agricultural land be used to its best potential for sustainable production.
Highly productive arable land be protected against speculation, subdivision, uncontrolled settlement and undesirable changes in land use.
Commercialization of livestock and crop production be pursued, with diversification towards high value crops.
The central role of the farmer in production systems be recognized and strengthened through the provision of an appropriate decision making environment.
Land tenure arrangements be adapted or changed as a precondition to facilitate introduction of profitable production systems.

Policy Practical Elements

The national and rural policy elements in particular applicable to agricultural policy are participation, environmental integration, land tenure and agroecological zoning (AEZ). The AEZ based priorities are further worked in the following agricultural strategy section. There is a strong interaction between production goals, production systems and AEZ based land use planning.

The environment policy in agricultural production follows the overall national policy and more in particular the soil conservation policy. Detailed policy elements are worked out at the next policy level for specific agricultural land uses, such as rainfed and irrigated cropping, ranching, extensive communal grazing, etc.

Degradation control and land rehabilitation be integral part of all farming systems.
Agricultural production goals be defined in relation to national and household food security requirements.
Agroecological zoning (AEZ) and land suitability be used as the planning basis for spatial distribution of agricultural land uses and production systems, including the allocation of land.
Development of economically viable agricultural production systems be linked to production goals.
Farming systems approach be applied in expanding smallholder opportunities.
Effectively functioning mechanisms be pursued covering the full sequence of food management, storage, transport, distribution, agro-processing and marketing.
Subdivision of agricultural land be strictly controlled to avoid speculation and loss of production.
Conditional leaseholds be established on purchased and other SNL.
An efficient and acceptable balance of the use of water be established between agricultural, domestic and other uses.
Farmers and rural communities be actively involved in the planning and decision making of agricultural land use and management.

Policy Supportive Elements

Administrative structures and institutions be improved for the efficient planning and regulation of agricultural land use.
Necessary assistance and technological support be provided to farmers through specialized extension services.
Agricultural information systems be efficiently organized, maintained and made accessible.
Efficient legislation be formulated in support of agricultural land use policy.
Credit facilities and financial control in agricultural enterprises be improved.
Greater awareness be created in the farming community with respect to sustainable and viable agricultural production systems.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General strategic elements

There are different options for agricultural scenarios, depending on the national and regional macro-economic performance. The two main scenarios recognized are (1) a stagnating economy with reduced non-farm income opportunities and increasing demand for food supplies from SNL resources, and (2) a long-term continuation of the non-farm income opportunities growth and decreasing dependence of SNL resources. The first scenario is considered the most likely one.

The central overall objective is to achieve efficient and sustainable agricultural production systems, which include the livestock industry, irrigated and rainfed crop production, and the related forestry industry. Assessment of the present situation shows that large and efficient agricultural production systems in Swaziland are in place, such as the sugar, citrus and forestry industries. There are also smaller production systems and farms with economic and sustainable outputs, as well as communal and traditional activities with a respectable and sustainable production.

However, large parts of the country are not controlled by sustainable production systems, as is evident through low outputs and land degradation. There is an urgent need for improving land use on both communal and private land, guided by clear policies.

Land shortage, land tenure and land degradation are most often mentioned as the major constraints in land development, with the increasing population pressure as the underlying cause. However, there is also a substantial amount of not- or underutilized land, including TDL farms, purchased SNL farms, and also communal SNL. Most problems relate to land management and planning.

Complementary to the national and rural strategies, the general agricultural strategy includes the following elements, with emphasis on SNL development.

To integrate agricultural development and environmental protection.
To ensure the active participation of farmers, and in particular women, in planning and implementation of viable and profitable production systems.
To use the farming systems development approach in changing the current passive role of SNL farming in general and the farmers role in decision making in particular.
To explore opportunities and propose options for developing new income streams.
To promote linkages between agriculture and non-agricultural sectors, especially industry, trade, transport and marketing.
To reform current trading and processing activities to provide optimal services to all producers.
To focus technological support on constraints and opportunities of farm systems rather than on potential yield increase.
To promote sustainable agricultural land use on non- and underutilized communal SNL and purchased SNL farms.
To promote and legally enforce the efficient use of TDL farms.

Strategy for agricultural land use and environmental planning

Land use and environmental planning, especially selection of agricultural land uses, is to be based on land evaluation. Land evaluation results for Swaziland are available in terms of the physical land suitability and crop potential of the agroecological zones and units, including the economic potential of selected crops. For a brief explanation of AEZ approach reference is made section 2.1.2.0 under Rural Land and Environment Policy.

The recommended land uses relate in the first place to improved traditional systems on communal land, but would also apply to commercial production on private land or commercialization introduced to SNL. The basic idea is to promote specific production systems and crops in areas where they can result in profitable economic returns.

In the planning strategy preference is given to crop production systems as these have presently higher returns than traditional animal husbandry. Ranching and extensive communal grazing could be equally important to crop production, provided animal production systems are improved and commercialized. Summary land use recommendations are already incorporated at the national and rural policy levels.

To apply the agroecological zoning (AEZ) approach with the following recommendations for agricultural land use based on land suitability and gross margins.

Highveld

Improved rainfed field cropping (sunflower, maize, potato);
Rainfed tree cropping (apple, pear, plum, peach, avocado);
Extensive communal grazing (on steeper parts).

Upper Middleveld/upper part Lebombo

Improved rainfed field cropping (maize, groundnut, cotton, sunflower, cowpea);
Rainfed tree cropping (mango, granadilla, cashew, pecan nut, tung nut);
Extensive communal grazing (on steeper parts).

Lower Middleveld/lower part Lebombo/northern Lowveld

Irrigated tree and field cropping (citrus, banana, sugar cane, vegetables, maize, cotton, groundnut, wheat, potato);
Extensive communal grazing;
Improved rainfed field cropping (groundnuts, cotton).

Southeastern Lowveld

Irrigated tree and field cropping (as Lower Middleveld);
Extensive communal grazing.

Strategy elements to commercialize agricultural production systems

A proper strategy for commercialization of production systems on SNL can only be worked out after the production goals have been defined in connection with the food security strategy (national, regional, international). Also the role of TDL needs be defined in the context of food security.

Commercialization of SNL production will require substantial investments, also in infrastructure. A consequence of intensification and commercialization on SNL will be a drastic reduction of traditional and communal land use practices.

Land tenure

A precondition for commercialization on SNL is to provide for changes in the land tenure system to ensure security of land holding and provision of a collateral for credit.

There are various possibilities, depending on present tenure arrangements. One option is to privatise SNL (purchased or communal). This could be a localized option, in selected areas with specific conditions or constraints, or requiring large investments.

More feasible and acceptable would be leasehold arrangements on purchased or communal SNL. Compensation is to be part of such arrangements, e.g. as a lump sum or through land made available elsewhere. Compensation options in the case of reduction of the communal grazing area are incentives for direct destocking or provision of grazing land elsewhere, e.g. government farms or underutilized communal land in the Lowveld.

To change current individual and communal SNL tenure arrangements, for example by introducing leaseholds.
To define leasehold periods and rental systems (economic or nominal) for leasehold SNL.
To regulate land use and monitor management and production of leased purchased farms.
To introduce restrictions with respect to the use of communal SNL.
To include incentives in the development of SNL, either direct or fiscal.

The clear defining of existing property rights, as referred to in levels one and two of this paper, is a precondition for successfully addressing the tenure aspect of commercialisation.

Commercialized production systems

Commercialization of production systems on SNL may take place on leased land by individuals or groups, or on communal grazing land. A major requirement for commercialization is improvement of the supportive systems from storage to marketing.

To explore smallholder opportunities in commercializing farming, such as:
- irrigated horticulture (including vegetables, flowers, spices)
- arable food crops
- tree crop (citrus, nuts)
- crops for processing (groundnuts, sunflower, sugar cane)
- small stock and poultry
- cattle and game farming
- dairy products.
To encourage commercialization of communal livestock production through changes in the grazing rights, e.g. through introduction of agistment fees (see reference 4.1.1.1.3).
To provide acceptable guarantees for increased economic returns.
To encourage diversification as part of commercialization of production.
To promote adequate technology for food management and agro-processing.
To improve storage and transport facilities.
To improve direct links and opportunities with markets.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Flory, B. 1987. Constraints to Commercial Agriculture on Swazi Nation Land.

GOS/MOAC/USAID 1991. Farmers' Handbook.

GOS/UNDP 1994. Strategic Issues in Swaziland's Agricultural Development.

Lunogelo H.B. 1994. Identification, Assessment and Analysis of the Social and Economic Factors Influencing Land Utilisation in Swaziland.

Van Waveren et al 1993. Agro-Ecological Analysis of Swaziland: Rainfed Crop Production.

Van Waveren, E. 1993. Agro-Ecological Analysis of Swaziland: Irrigated Crops.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MOAC

1.1.2.1 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

This policy is to deal with the development of livestock and livestock products, subject to the NLEP, ULEP and ALUP provisions. It focuses on livestock production on SNL.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Production and management

Low productivity on communal SNL.
Poor quality of livestock.
Low offtake.
Livestock industry not taking advantage of market opportunities, such as fulfilling quota.
Role of livestock in Swazi culture (wealth, security, social obligations, draught power).
Lack of understanding of the economics from the livestock owner's point of view, in particular as investment alternative.
Inadequate marketing systems.
Inadequate handling facilities of livestock products.
Animal health hazards from neighbouring countries.
Improper use of sisa and fattening ranches.
Negligence of small stock development.
Grazing on land with high potential for crop production.
Insufficient livestock extension service.
Lack of administration of grazing on SNL.

Environment and degradation

Severe and widespread erosion and deterioration of the rangelands.
Unsustainable stocking rates.
Detrimental environmental effects by dipping, watering and other practices, especially related to cattle movements.
Lack of control and management of communal grazing resources.
Communal tenure system not conducive to sustainable grazing.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

A Livestock Development Policy has been submitted to cabinet and has been endorsed in 1994. The policy provides detailed policies and strategies to improve livestock production, with a strong emphasis on technical solutions.

Overall Objective

To achieve an efficient and sustainable livestock industry contributing to economic development.

Policy Principles

Livestock production be based on ecological sustainability, economic viability and understanding of the socio-economic implications of interventions.
Livestock development be promoted in areas best suited for range and pasture, in overall balance with other land uses.
Institutional changes in land tenure arrangements and control be recognized as precondition to sustainable livestock development.
Cost recovery applied to all services rendered.

Policy Practical Elements

Environmental protection be incorporated as integral part of livestock production.
The present rangelands and grazing areas be appraised with respect to suitability for major land uses and overall national land use priorities.
Priority be given to the rehabilitation of degraded rangelands by the most appropriate measures, including changes to other land uses.
Sustainable range management be introduced on the basis of zonation of grazing potential and stocking rates.
Individual rights to utilize communal pasture be formalized and restricted, subject to equitable access and share.
Commercialization of livestock production be promoted on both SNL and TDL, with emphasis on the quality of the herd and the central role of offtake.
Essential facilities and procedures of the livestock industry be improved, such as marketing, processing and quality control.

Policy Supportive Elements

Active participation of livestock owners be ensured in the planning and decision making on livestock development on communal land.
Practical veterinary and livestock research and technology development be conducted in fields relevant to the Swaziland livestock industry.
Dissemination of information and communication with livestock owners be promoted.
Legislation including regulatory control over range resources and livestock numbers be reviewed and enforced.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Strategy to establish sustainable range management and environmental protection

Most of the present rangelands are severely degraded as a result of unsustainable use. The strategy conducive to the overall livestock development objective is aimed at commercializing the livestock industry, including on SNL. The feasibility of the introduction of commercial livestock production depends on finding solutions for the lack of communal control and management of the rangelands.

Formalizing grazing rights and increasing responsibility for range management

Livestock numbers ought to be brought in better accordance with grazing capacity, which could be achieved by increasing the grazing capacity through better management or through reducing livestock numbers by larger offtake. The strategy should therefore, on one hand, aim at increasing the communal and individual responsibility for the range resources, and on the other, at making communal grazing less attractive.

To encourage effective social pasture control through local consensus on sustainable use of communal grazing land.
To formalize individual rights in order to develop individual responsibility.
To define in writing all proprietorial rights over SNL, inclusive of all rights to graze livestock over designated areas;
To institute agistment fees for cattle, at a level in the region of five years' purchase for an average mature beast, beyond an upper limit of herd size for permanent residents, and applicable the herds of all non-residents
To give local authorities, combined with new livestock users associations, the right and obligation to limit livestock numbers.
To reduce livestock investment values by increasing the cost of maintenance, thereby encouraging an increased offtake.

Range rehabilitation and monitoring

To improve the range database by comprehensive description of vegetation units and to define the critical range condition standards through reference pilot areas for periodic assessment and monitoring. It is recommended to make use of available information, such as AEZ and vegetation inventories (GIS) and diptank database.
To make comprehensive plans for the rehabilitation of degraded rangelands through:
- assessing the range condition;
- evaluating the overall land suitability of the degraded land;
- weigh the various options such as rehabilitation as rangeland, conservation with or without protection, change to other land use (e.g. crop production, forestry), etc.
- Finalize and implement plans with local participation.
To reappraise the effect of government fattening and sisa ranches and grazing management schemes on SNL offtake and development impact, and also to appraise the overall sustainability and alternative options for their use, such as conversion to TDL, leasing to individuals or farmer associations (preferably from SNL), resettlement, overflow from rehabilitation areas, nature reserves, etc.

Technical strategy elements to increase livestock production

This section reflects the main elements from the Livestock Development Policy. For further detailed technical strategic elements reference is made to this document. The three key elements in a commercialized livestock industry are the quality and standard of (1) the herd, (2) the range and pasture, and (3) the operational and managerial system.

To improve the quality of the national herd by selection and breeding.
To improve livestock nutrition by better access and utilization of feed resources and supplementary feeding.
To increase animal health by improved disease prevention and animal health care services.
To improve and facilitate livestock marketing, including marketing for low quality animals.
To expand and modernize processing industries, including re-establishment of canning.
To upgrade and monitor meat hygiene standards and sanitary requirements.
To educate indigenous livestock farmers with regard to the necessity and benefits of keeping smaller herds of higher quality.
To develop range management guidelines and train livestock owners in range management.
To promote (semi-)commercialized smallholder livestock enterprises, including small stock and dairy.
To gradually remove all subsidies in government livestock support services and promote privatisation of these services, such as:
- veterinary clinical services
- sisa and fattening ranches
- breeding ranches
- dipping
- feed provision.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

FAO 1994. Livestock Sub-sector review and Range Survey

GOS/MOAC 1995. Livestock Development Policy.

Sweet/Khumalo 1994. Range Resources and Grazing Potentials in Swaziland

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Mainly MOAC, also MTEC & MNRE.

1.1.2.2 CROP PRODUCTION

This policy is to deal with the production of crops, subject to the recommendations of the RLEP & ALUP. It pays attention to both commercial and subsistence farming, with special reference to smallholder development.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Low crop production levels.
Low level and disparity of food and nutrition security.
Lack of crop diversification.
Crops grown in areas where conditions are not suitable.
Emphasis on monocropping in both subsistence and commercial farming.
Present pricing and marketing policies discourage commercial high value crop production.
Lack of capital and credit facilities for agricultural investment.
Seed production and availability.
Inadequate storage, transport, distribution and marketing systems.
Agricultural extension service not crop and zonation specific.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Crop production policy follows the objectives and policies as defined at the ALUP level. Food production is tied to the food security policy, which has to be defined in terms of crop selection and priorities.

Status of Policy

Non-existent.

Broad Overall Objectives

To achieve efficient and sustainable crop production systems.
To optimally contribute to food and nutrition security at national and household level.

Policy Principles

An appropriate balance be pursued between subsistence and cash crop production.
Commercialization of crop production be promoted, with diversification towards high value crops.
Food security be improved by ensuring food supplies at lowest cost rather than raising domestic production at high cost.

Policy Practical Elements

Integration of soil conservation and land rehabilitation with crop production.
Crop production planning be linked to AEZ and land suitability, phasing out rainfed production in non suitable zones and replacing by irrigated or livestock production.
Farmers be advised on appropriate crop selection and techniques to reduce effects of drought.
Management levels and farming technology be improved.

Policy Supportive Elements

Reference is made to the ALUP (1.1.2).

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

The crop production strategy incorporates the relevant higher level strategy elements, in particular the ALUP strategy. Emphasis is on smallholder development on SNL. Essential elements are again environmental integration, land tenure and agroecological zoning. Important production aspects such as crop specific technology and marketing have to be worked out at lower level strategies.

To integrate environmental protection and crop production systems by adhering to environmentally sound practices, including soil conservation and control of the use of fertilizers and pesticides.
To introduce crop production systems for the rehabilitation of eroded and degraded rangelands, especially on high potential land in Highveld and Upper Middleveld.
To facilitate and secure investments on SNL by making appropriate changes in the tenure arrangements, e.g. by defining rights of holders and through leaseholds.
To involve the farmers, and in particular women, in the planning and decision making of cropping systems.
To stimulate commercialization and diversification of crop production systems through incentives and structural improvements with the dual aim to improve incomes and contribute to food security.
To advise and assist dry-land farmers in drought sensitive zones in the planning for other land uses or improve production through introduction of drought resistant crops, water harvesting and moisture retention techniques.
To improve household food and nutrient security by promoting small scale irrigation (including homestead gardens) and fruit trees.
To promote smallholder irrigation and innovative production systems such as permaculture.
To promote cultivation of crops to be processed in large- and small-scale agro-industries.
To improve seed production and distribution in accordance to farmers demands in the different agroecological zones.
To improve input delivery, crop storage, processing, transport and marketing through active participation of farmers associations.
To improve the functioning of extension services though restructuring following the needs and requirements of the farmers, with emphasis on crop differentiation and specialization in a zonal approach, and considering options of transferring extension responsibilities to the private sector.
To use agroecological zoning (AEZ) and land suitability for the selection and promotion of crops and land utilization types. Recommended crops per AEZ or AEZ combination on suitable soils according to gross margins (mod. high over 1000E/ha, mod. low 500-1000E/ha) or potential are listed as follows:

Improved rainfed arable field cropping

sunflower : Highveld/Upper-Lower Middleveld/Lebombo moderately high gross margins, N/SW Lowveld mod. low gross margins;

groundnut : Upper-Lower Middleveld/Lebombo moderately high gross margins, N/SW Lowveld moderately low gross margins;

potato : Highveld probably moderately high gross margins;

maize : Highveld/Upper Middleveld/Upper Lebombo moderately high gross margins;

cowpea/bean : Upper Middleveld/Upper Lebombo moderately low gross margins (some potential in Lower Middleveld);

cotton : Upper-Lower Middleveld/Lebombo/N-SW Lowveld moderately high gross margins, SE Lowveld moderately low gross margins;

sorghum : although medium potential in all zones, only in Highveld moderately low gross margins, elsewhere low or negative, and not recommended.

Rainfed tree cropping

apple, pear, plum, peach, avocado: medium-high potential in Highveld; mango, granadilla, cashew, pecan nut, tung nut: medium-high potential in Upper Middleveld/Lebombo, mango also in Lower Middleveld.

Irrigated tree cropping

citrus, banana: medium-high potential in Lower Middleveld/Lowveld.

Irrigated medium-large scale commercial perennial field cropping

sugar cane: medium-high potential in Lower Middleveld/Lowveld.

Irrigated medium scale commercial annual field cropping

double cropping cotton, maize, groundnut, wheat, potato: medium-high potential in Lower Middleveld/Lowveld.

Irrigated smallholder semi-commercial annual field cropping

single cropping vegetables: medium-high potential in Middleveld/Lowveld; double cropping vegetables and annual crops: medium-high potential in Middleveld/Lowveld.

Irrigated micro-projects

single and double cropping vegetables: all zones.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Holm and Van Waveren, 1993. Cropping Strategy for SNL Farms.

Chapman, C., 1994. Water Resources and Irrigation.

Van Waveren et al. 1993. Crop Requirements, with Special Reference to Climate and Soils.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MOAC.

1.1.3 FORESTRY

This policy is to focus solely upon forestry issues, but again guided both spatially and in principles by the recommendations within the NLEP and the RLEP. It must be noted, however, that forestry is not confined to the rural sector. Although comparatively insignificant economically, the forests that exist in both urban and peri-urban areas have important social functions which are addressed within this policy framework.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Management and environment

Inadequate management of forest resources, especially wattle and indigenous, and in particular in the urban and peri-urban areas (amenity and recreation forestry).
Lack of people's participation and responsibility in forest resource management.
Competition between forestry and other land uses.
Negative effects of plantation forestry on biodiversity and water resources.
Invasion of exotic species into indigenous forest.
Loss of tree and vegetation cover through deforestation resulting in land degradation, loss of plant and animal biodiversity.
Shortage of fuel wood in localised areas, especially in the Upper and Lower Middleveld.
Waste deposition in wattle forests and indigenous woodlands.

Exploitation

Lack of investment capital for small entrepreneurs.
Lack of forest product diversification (monoculture).
Declining economic growth and fluctuation in world market prices threatening stability and performance of forest industry.
Incomprehensive, fragmented and outdated forest legislation.
Inadequate human, financial and physical resources to implement forest policy and enforce legislation.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

Non-existent.

Broad Overall Objectives

To achieve efficient, profitable and sustainable exploitation of forest resources.
To increase the role of forestry in environmental protection, conservation of plant and animal genetic resources and rehabilitation of degraded land.

Policy Principles

Forest resources be conserved and efficiently managed for optimal sustainable economic production.
Biodiversity be sustained in the indigenous forest, woodland and savanna resources by maintaining ecosystem diversity and stability.
Plantation forestry not be permitted on land with high potential for agricultural production.

Policy Practical Elements

The forest resource inventory be maintained and changes be monitored.
Plantation forests be monitored with respect to effects on biodiversity and water resources.
Expansion of commercial plantation forests be evaluated on the basis of land suitability and environmental and socio-economic impact. Forest planning is first to determine what to leave, and then what to take.
EIA be applied to all forest planning.
Expansion of small forests and woodlots in communal areas be based on careful selection and appraisal of planning locations.
The use of indigenous species in afforestation and reforestation be promoted.
Fuelwood supply be secured by a efficient and sustainable utilization of existing wattle forests, indigenous resources and woodlots.
Appropriate forestry techniques and watershed management be applied in soil conservation and rehabilitation of degraded land.
Forestry be integrated with other land uses, such as agriculture (agroforestry), nature and wildlife preservation, eco-tourism, recreation, residential use.

Policy Supportive Elements

People's participation be recognized as a key element in the management, conservation, protection and judicious use of forest resources.
Capability in forestry planning and management be strengthened by human resource development.
Forestry research capacity be developed to generate reliable forestry information and technology relevant to Swaziland.
Public awareness and knowledge of forest resource management be increased.
An effective forestry legislation be formulated and implemented.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General strategy

To strongly promote interaction and integration of forestry, especially in planning and management, with other sectors such as crop production/agroforestry, livestock development/range management, nature conservation/eco-tourism, urban/peri-urban development, etc.
To ensure the involvement and participation of all stakeholders (local people, private sector, government and NGO's) in the management and conservation of all forest resources (especially wattle and indigenous forests).
To fully involve local communities in the design, planning and implementation of forest projects aimed at improving the supply of wood products.

Strategies related to sustainable management of forest resources

To prepare management plans for all forest operations, for specific forest sites and/or ecosystems, and include provisions on the protection and maintenance of adjacent and interconnected sites and ecosystems.
To promote and update the indigenous flora inventory and documentation in the Swaziland National Herbarium.
To classify and map vegetation and forest types, including the status of degradation, using an appropriate land cover classification system, and to evaluate and demarcate areas suitable for the various systems of forest practice such as production forests, protection and conservation forests, mixed range or multiple use forests (including agroforestry), community forests (including woodlots and wattle), establishment of botanical gardens, amenity and recreation and landscape scenery for eco-tourism.
To assess and monitor deforestation and land degradation, including the effects of veld and forest fires, and to recommend and implement remedial measures.
To eradicate invasive species from plantations and wattle forests threatening other land uses, as well as other exotic and indigenous shrubs encroaching on arable land and rangelands.
To apply appropriate silvicultural techniques and forest practices in the management of forest reserves and community forests aimed at improving the productivity of indigenous resources such as enrichment planting and buffer zone planting.
To establish regulations and practices in the management of exotic plantations amenable with sound environment protection, to ensure ecological balance and biodiversity.
To rehabilitate existing wattle plantations (jungles) through clearfelling and applying appropriate silvicultural and forest practices to improve the productivity.

Afforestation/reforestation strategy to meet local demands

To establish individual and community woodlots of exotic and preferably indigenous species to provide the essential forest products to meet the needs of local people and industry, further to ease pressure from the indigenous resources.
To promote efficient use of fuelwood to release pressure from indigenous reserves through economizing the rate of consumption and introducing alternative sources of energy.
To develop with local communities methods to combat veld and forest fires and reduce fire hazards.
To increase seed and seedling production, especially of indigenous species, in government nurseries as well as encourage rural communities, schools and Non-Governmental Organizations to set up and operate their own forest nurseries.

Strategy to enhance opportunities and commercialization in small-scale forestry

To promote the establishment of small business for forest contractors, harvesting, silviculture and nursery operations.
To provide incentives and support to local communities to participate in the wattle industry, focusing on production of bark for tanning, fuelwood, timber for building and fencing, pulp, etc.
To promote small-scale timber industries in the formal sector for furniture and other timber products.
To promote processing industries in the informal rural sector for the processing of wood (wattle and indigenous) and non-wood forest products such as bee-honey farming, mushrooms, silk production, vegetable tannin extraction, charcoal production, woodcarving, furniture, wild fruit farming, etc.
To seek local and external markets for large and small industries to enhance the utilization of wood and non-wood products from indigenous, wattle and exotic plantations.

Supportive and institutional strategy

To reform policy and legislation by reviewing, updating and improving the existing policy and legislation and enacting a forest act for the effective management, conservation and utilization of forest resources.
To improve the research capability by setting up a forest research facility to enhance forest technology, with emphasis on the ecology and utilization of indigenous species.
To revise the mandate of the forestry section and to consider transfer to MNRE or MTEC.
To intensify human resources development through training at all levels to improve the present capability and capacity of the government forestry service to be able to effectively implement the forest policy and enforce legislation.
To improve the government forestry capacity by providing additional financial and physical resources to efficiently undertake its duties and responsibilities.
To increase awareness and knowledge of forestry practices to farmers and general public through extension training and education by various communication methods.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

GOS/MOAC 1989. Forestry Development Programme and Proposed Structure, Forestry Section.

GOS/MOAC 1992. National Forestry Research Plan.

GOS/MOAC 1990. Swazi-German Forest Inventory and Planning Project

Lasschuit, P. 1993. Rural Household Energy Strategies in Swaziland.

Meyer, K.R. 1972. Forest Industries Development in Swaziland.

Skarner, G. 1975. Forest Industries and Related Companies in Swaziland.

Stokes, J.S. 1979. Draft Swaziland Forest Legislation.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Predominantly MOAC, but with peripheral MNRE and MHUD involvement.

1.1.4 MINING

This policy is to provide directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above within the mining industry.

ISSUES SUMMARY

environment related

Alteration and destruction of landscapes and ecosystems.
Accumulation of waste, often hazardous.
Pollution of air, surface and ground water.
Health hazards due to unsafe operations or toxicity of mining materials (e.g. asbestos).
Rehabilitation of mines unsatisfactory; mining companies do not adhere to rehabilitation provisions as laid down in the mining licence.
Insufficient environmental mitigation measures and insufficient environmental planning capability.

general

Lack of proper planning of mining operations, especially with respect to coordination and continuity.
The mineral resources of Swaziland not fully exploited, e.g. the considerable coal reserves, including high quality low sulphur anthracite.
Low production and use of coal on the domestic market.
The effectiveness of the committees responsible for the assessment and analysis of applications by private investors.
The present mining act outdated and no longer suited to provide the comprehensive regulatory policies for present day mineral exploitation.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Essential in the mining policy is a Constitution Article stating that all mineral rights and title are vested in the Ngwenyama in trust for the Swazi Nation.

Status of Policy

Brief Draft Mining Policy, dated April 1996, by A.M. Vilakati.

Broad Overall Objective

To achieve a sustainable, efficient and environmentally sound mining industry as integral part of the country's economy.

Policy Principles

Mineral resources be optimally developed and efficiently exploited with safe and health protective mining practices.
The environmental impact of mineral extraction be critically assessed and evaluated following accepted standards.

Policy Practical Elements

Sustained mineral resources management and exploration be promoted in order to ensure continued development of the mining industry.
Pollution and waste control be pursued in all mining operations.
The rehabilitation of affected land and water resources as a result of exploitation of mineral resources be fully integrated in the overall mining operation.

Policy Supportive Elements

The mining legislation be revised, updated and fully implemented.
The role of Government in mining comprehensively be defined in terms of promotional, supportive and controlling activities.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

To develop and exploit the mineral resources of Swaziland based on sustainable management with the following principles:
- attractive legal and fiscal investment conditions;
- free market mechanism;
- maximum benefits;
- continuity in all operations.
To require the submission of an environmental plan and programme as a precondition for all mining operations. In addition regular environmental impacts management reports are required during the operational stage.
To include the rehabilitation of all mining sites such as quarries, open casts, subsurface mines and their affected surroundings in the mining licence of each operation, including full funding arrangements.
To revise the present mining act and implement a new act. The act must define arrangements of royalties, rent, taxes, etc., and prescribe operational procedures.
To appraise the mandate and responsibilities of the Department of Geological Survey and Mines and recommend institutional improvements, if required. The role of the Department to be assessed in the following fields:
- exploration;
- promotion of investment in mining;
- updating information systems;
- provision of infrastructure;
- pollution and environmental impact;
- rehabilitation.
Broad public awareness be created about the role and impact of the mineral industry.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

None

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MNRE, in particular the Geological Survey and Mines Department, and MTEC (SEA).

1.1.5 BIODIVERSITY

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in biodiversity conservation and nature and wildlife preservation. There are strong links and interactions with other action plans, in particular urban and peri-urban, soil conservation, forestry, settlement and tourism.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Biodiversity

Negative effects of rapid population growth and changing consumption patterns on biodiversity.
Habitat destruction and fragmentation, with consequent species depletion due to increasing pressure on the environment and unsustainable use of resources.
Current systems promote unsustainable exploitation of biological reserves and fail to value the environment.
Insufficient plant genetic resource conservation.
Polluted water of rivers and lakes resulting in impoverishment of fish populations.
Loss of indigenous knowledge and traditional values on one hand, and unsustainable traditional practices (use of plants and animals) on the other.
Insufficient knowledge and appreciation of indigenous ecosystems, flora and fauna, and the need for biodiversity conservation.
Occurrence of unique Swaziland ecosystems and plant species, e.g. cycads, which need protection.
Invasive aliens such as guava, lantana, sesbania, Mauritian thorn.
Annual burning too frequent to protect biodiversity.

Forestry and other production

Loss of biodiversity as a result of pollution through industry, including agro- and forestry industries, use of fertilizers and pesticides, mining, urban waste and sewerage, etc.
Insufficient focus on developing positive linkages between nature conservation and sustainable production systems such as tourism, forestry, game farming.
Encroachment by invasive exotic species, especially wattle, but also eucalyptus and pine, forming a major thread to biodiversity.
Negative effects of plantation forestry, especially eucalyptus, on water resources and ecosystems in the same watershed.
Tendency to focus on monocultures in forestry and agricultural production, leading to genetic erosion.
Bush encroachment by indigenous species, e.g. Acacia nilotica, on abandoned arable land, leading to impoverished single species ecosystems.

Parks and reserves

Insufficient government interest and support in protection of ecosystems and developing parks and nature reserves.
No government investment policy for ecotourism.
Management of parks and reserves leaves much room for improvement.
Lack of coordination and cooperation between national and privately owned reserves.
Parks and reserves too small in size to strongly compete in ecotourism development.
Park facilities and diversity not of the same standard as South African parks.
Trans-boundary park and reserve development opportunities.
Poaching.
Lack of adequately trained, equipped and motivated staff.

General

Lack of community participation in resource management and biodiversity conservation.
Private sector insufficiently involved in biodiversity conservation.
Role of NGOs needs to be defined.
Outdated, conflicting and fragmented legislation.
SNTC not providing extension service.
Shortage of trained personnel in genetic conservation and sustainable nature reserve management.
Lack of research priority for ecosystems and genetic resources.
Lack of recognition for conservation action taken.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

Non-existent.

Broad Overall Objectives

To restore and maintain the biological genetic resources and to utilize bio- and cultural diversity in a sustainable way for present and future needs.
To preserve the unique ecosystems of Swaziland through an expanding network of carefully selected and well managed nature reserves and parks, providing possibilities for recreation and income generation.

Policy Principles

Biodiversity conservation be considered an investment which yields substantial local, national and global benefits.
Costs and benefits of biodiversity conservation be shared equitably among nations and people within nations.
Biological and physical resources be properly priced, including tradeable rights in their management.
Biodiversity conservation be focussed not solely on species rich ecosystems, but also on culturally changed systems where people work and live.
Present agricultural and forestry policies which invite or result in degradation and loss of biodiversity be reformed.

Policy Practical Elements

Biodiversity programmes (plant and animal genetic resource conservation as well as cultural conservation) be promoted not only in protected indigenous natural habitat areas, but also in production areas with human influenced ecosystems.
Benefits of biodiversity be emphasized as evident in tourism, agriculture, settlement, energy, health, etc.
Emphasis be given to programmes which benefit the local people.
Protected areas be proclaimed in all ecologically important parts of the country, ensuring on one hand a fair distribution over the country, but on the other promoting economically viable zones and concentration.
Ecotourism be strongly promoted as a means to generate necessary funding for biodiversity programmes and protected area management.
Natural reserves and parks be expanded, linked and combined into well managed competitive and marketable units in support of the tourist industry.
Transboundary protection area and biosphere reserve development be given high priority.
Investment be promoted in biodiversity conservation and nature reserves development.

Policy Supportive Elements

Communities and NGOs be involved in biodiversity conservation programmes and stimulated to active participation in nature reserve management.
SNTC be strengthened and actively involved in protecting and controlling the environment.
Full use be made of support and opportunities offered through international conventions (Biodiversity Convention, Lusaka Agreement, CITES).
International cooperation and donor support be pursued in protected area management.
Research be promoted, especially in genetic resource conservation, with emphasis on international data transfer.
Existing legislation be appraised and comprehensive legislation be formulated, endorsed and implemented.
Education programmes and awareness campaigns be formulated and executed.
Institutional arrangements and mandates be appraised and revised, with SEAP in a coordinating role.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Effective biodiversity planning begins with the elaboration of national objectives derived from broad-based participation and consultation. Once a consensus is reached, practical national and international priorities can be defined for strengthening protected areas and enhancing their role in biodiversity conservation, supported by policy, legal and institutional reform, human resource development and investment.

The following sections will highlight the strategic approach in biodiversity conservation. The general approach in the first section provides a framework for addressing biodiversity planning. The second section concentrates on the identification, categorization and prioritization of protectionworthy areas. Other sections emphasizes on diversity aspects of major land uses, community participation and supportive strategies.

General Strategic Approach based on land use

Presently there is no comprehensive strategic approach towards the conservation of biodiversity. The practical approach suggested is to define specific biodiversity conservation programmes related to the predominant land use, linked with the level of the diversity and supported by practical methodologies. These are not different approaches, but complementary to each other and to be applied simultaneously.

Each major land use is characterized by different levels of biodiversity, either present or achievable, which range from optimal levels in protected nature reserves to relatively low levels in populated and cultivated areas.

Yet, each of these land use categories has maximum possible biodiversity levels, and within these limits one should strive to achieve these levels. Overall strategies for major land uses are found at the levels one and two, national and rural action plans, including proposals for changes in land use. A practical broad classification for Swaziland gives the following categories:

Protected and reserved areas. These include various subcategories, depending on the rate of interference and production levels allowed (ranging from conservation areas with controlled utilization to pure preservation areas).
Communal arable and non arable land. The communal arable land is predominantly mixed land use, together with grazing, and includes rural settlements. The non-arable land comprises two main categories, with very gradual transitions, namely (1) natural forests and woodlands and (2) rangelands (savannas and grassland). Most of this land is primarily used for grazing, with extraction as the secondary use.
Plantation forests, ranches and commercial agricultural monocultures.
Urban, peri-urban, and mining areas.

Diversity level approach

In each of these major land use categories it is useful to distinguish macro-, meso- and micro-levels with regard to biodiversity. These can be linked with increasingly more detailed levels of diversity:

ecological diversity
species diversity
genetic diversity (genes and genotype diversity within each species)

In addition to these three levels there is cultural diversity, which goes across the biodiversity levels.

Methodological approach

Practical approaches with respect to the spatial distribution are essential tools in the study and application of biodiversity conservation. The integrated environmental management (IEM) approach provides a suitable framework, covering all relevant environmental aspects. Within this framework there are various methodologies which can be applied. Of particular relevance are the following two:

The Agroecological Zoning (AEZ) approach, providing a suitable framework for biodiversity planning and establishing linkages with present land use.
The Watershed Management approach, in conjunction with AEZ, is in particular useful for the study and planning of more detailed ecosystems and habitats.

Large scale watersheds go across agroecological zones, but smaller scale watersheds form a useful subdivision of AEZ.

The following sections highlight strategic elements which need to be addressed in biodiversity management plans. These are grouped following the broad land use categories identified above.

Protected area identification and development strategy

The following strategy elements have general application:

To identify national and international priorities for strengthening protected areas and enhancing their role in biodiversity conservation.
Review current proposals for nature reserves and protected areas in relation to general development and socio-economic aspirations.
To formulate short, medium and long term plans for protection of biodiversity, including landscapes and cultural sites.
To promote and closely involve private land owners in the development and sustainable management of protected zones and areas.
To give special attention to biodiversity conservation planning in the peri-protected zone, by promoting suitable and sustainable land uses such as wildlife management and game farming in the peri-protected zone.

Hierarchical planning is a useful approach in the stratification and grouping of areas which need protection. The leading first level strategy should be large scale international zonation of biosphere reserves and transboundary protection areas.

At the second level protected ecosystem networks or core conservation zones should be identified, consisting of components such as rare natural habitats, habitats for endangered species, ecologically or culturally sensitive sites, landscapes, forests, parks, connecting corridors, etc.

At the third level reference sites should be identified, preferably within the networks, but not limited to. Reference sites are representative of ecosystems, and where disturbed, restoration should be pursued. Reference sites are especially functional in forestry systems, where they are used as models with minimum standards applicable to ecologically responsible forest use.

Protected area management categories

All protected areas proclaimed under the Swaziland National Trust Commission Act as designated as nature reserves. Current legislation does not recognise different levels of protection. There is a need to recognize a scala of protected areas, with different levels of intensity, importance and management. This can be developed following the IUCN conservation categories (UNEP, 1995). Six categories are distinguished:

Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area. Scientific research, wilderness protection, limited recreation.
National Park. Outstanding significance, relatively large, not materially altered. Scientific, educational and recreational use.
National Monument/National Landmark. Relatively small areas focused on protection of specific features.
Habitat/Species Management Area. Protection of natural condition necessary for species, biotic communities and physical features. Some controlled harvesting may be permitted.
Protected Landscapes and Seascapes. Mixed cultural/natural landscapes of high scenic value, traditional land uses maintained, recreation and tourism.
Managed Resource Protected Area. Long-term protection and maintenance of biodiversity while providing sustainable flow of natural products, relatively large and predominantly unmodified natural and traditional systems.

These categories can be correlated with the above three levels. Level one corresponds with category VI, level two mainly with I, II, IV and V, and level three with III. Of particular interest to Swaziland are the categories IV, V and VI, especially so when additional protection areas are recognized. Category VI could be very relevant to Swaziland, considering the unique environmental and cultural conditions existing in large parts of the country. Introduction of these categories is considered essential for the promotion of ecotourism (see also next section).

Identification and international linkages The point of departure for the identification of national conservation areas is the 1978 report on the National Protectionworthy Areas Survey, of which an summary is also found in NPDP. This report must now be evaluated and reappraised in the light of present international and national developments.

The following international projects are particularly relevant:

Global Environment Facility Transfrontier Conservation Areas. Four projects to link important conservation areas in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. One of them to also include the Lebombo range in Swaziland.
IUCN/WWF Centres of Plant Diversity: Maputaland-Pondoland Region. Includes the Lebombo Range as an area with extreme biodiversity, enhancing the arguments for proposing the Swaziland-Mozambique Biodiversity Corridor.
Kwazulu/Natal Consolidation Plan. Plan to integrate the northern conservation areas, which are bordering Swaziland, as well as Mozambique.
Swaziland-Mozambique Ecozone proposal. This idea of this proposal is to develop the concept of a biodiversity corridor from Mozambique across northern Swaziland to Malolotja. Ecotourism can help make biodiversity conservation sustainable, provided the country develops solid marketable products.
Maputo Corridor. The development of this transport corridor will have major implications for regional development and tourism.
Lebombo Spatial Development Initiative. Trilateral South Africa - Mozambique - Swaziland exercise focusing on developing agriculture, tourism and related infrastructure.

Strategic elements in the communal grazing and arable areas

The communal natural forest, woodlands and rangelands cover is of particular importance, covering more than half of the country. The following elements need be included in biodiversity programmes. Reference is also made to the conservation strategy under 1.1.1.

Control and, if necessary, eradicate invasive alien tree species such as wattle to protect indigenous systems. Control of other exotic species, such as guava, lantana, sesbania, is also necessary.
Protect indigenous forests, especially on steeper slopes and in valley bottoms under threat by invasive species and over-exploitation.
Rehabilitate rangelands, including consideration of changing to other land uses. - Implement livestock development policy.
Base integrated land use planning needs on people's participation, addressing land degradation, animal and crop production systems, resettlement and other options to improving productivity. Present operational project: Improving Land Use on Swazi Nation Land.

Most of the arable land is mixed with grazing land and is relatively well managed. The same strategy as for the non arable applies, with the following additions:

Maintain diversity of crops, especially traditional crops.
Control fallow and abandoned land. There are gradual transitions from fallow land (1-3 years) to abandoned land with severe problems of bush encroachment, mainly Acacia nilotica and other Acacia spp., but also Dychrostachis cinerea. Underestimated but very serious problem in particular in the low rainfall areas of the Lowveld.
Improve human settlements management, particularly concerning problems of waste disposal and pollution.
Integrated land use planning and project approach as for communal grazing areas.

Strategic elements related to biodiversity protection in areas with commercial production

Plantation forests

Environmental databases; collate checklists of woody and herbaceous flora.
Emphasise the refuge function of plantation forest for fauna.
To eradication of invasive species from forestry plantations into the peri-forestry zone.
To provide management plans for conservation areas within forestry plantations; special attention to size and viability of protected ecosystems.
To introduce integrated environmental management of soil and water resources (catchment management plans), with special attention to groundwater flow and drainage.
To control pollution resulting from the associated wood and timber industry.
To provide forestry extension plans for both TDL and SNL.
To produce Environmental impact assessment (EIA) and annual environmental reports.
To regularly monitor plantations through environmental auditing.
To allow and promote the managed communal use of plantation forests.
To promote efficient use of wood waste for energy, including the provision to communities.

Ranches

Ranches are to a large extent not optimally used.

To appraise the functioning of underutilized ranches, both private and government.
To planning for the appropriate use of government farms currently kept in reserve.
Apply EIA in livestock development policy.
To restore biodiversity in areas of severe bush encroachment through reclamation and appropriate grazing practices.
Examine options of changing land use into nature reserve, wildlife management, game farming, etc.
Consider the position and use of ranches in connection with planning of biodiversity protection areas.

Commercial agricultural monocultures

Many of the points raised with regard to forestry also apply to the commercial monocultures. - Avoid excessive uniformity of crop and crop varieties.

To avoid overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
To monitor and control pollution and contamination by the agro-industries.

Strategic elements related to biodiversity in urban, peri-urban and mining areas

The urban, peri-urban and mining areas are the most biodiversity sensitive and offer the least opportunities. Nevertheless, biodiversity conservation and restoration is extremely important to counterbalance negative effects emanating from industrial and mining activities. See also relevant urban and peri-urban strategies and action plans (1.2 and 1.3).

Green belts with forests, parks, recreation, sports, social functions, etc.
Agriculture, in particular horticulture.
Degradation, pollution and uncontrolled waste disposal in the peri-urban zone in particular.
Forest management is extremely important in the urban and peri-urban areas. An example of lack of management are the wattle and eucalyptus plantations around Mbabane which are invading and destroying the natural ecosystems in the outer peri-urban zone. They are also used as illegal dumping sites.

Community participation and education strategy

To promote community participation and empowerment in the management and utilization of protected areas and nature reserves, though the following activities:
- formulate educational programmes and campaigns to increase biodiversity awareness at all levels of the population;
- ensure the incorporation of local expertise in biodiversity research programmes;
- give due recognition to customary rights, traditional lifestyles, knowledge and use of biological resources;
- plan and implement communal wildlife and other resource utilization projects;
- involve local people, especially woman, in initial biodiversity inventories;
- make biological information and plan proposals accessible to local people in understandable language;
- provide substantial shares of increased economic benefits from biodiversity to local communities;
- make sustainable arrangements with traditional healers to obtain required plants and animals; regulate the increasing demand from across the border;
- regulate the sustainable extraction of items of cultural significance;
- provide incentives for habitat protection;
- provide incentives for cultural heritage site management.

Supportive Strategies

Research/inventory

To continue updating a national inventory of flora and forest fauna.
To update and computerize the National Herbarium database, including information on habitat and ecosystems.
To continue maintaining and expanding the gene banks on indigenous and crop species.
To establish a botanical garden in Swaziland.
To work out present proposals for flora reserves in conjunction with the overall planning for nature reserves.
To promote international and national transfer of information and technology.
The Fisheries section to make inventory updates of indigenous species distributions and to formulate plans for diversity conservation.

Institutional

To monitor government and private parks and wildlife programmes, evaluate their impacts and revise accordingly.
To train more staff as ecologists, taxonomists, wildlife specialists, etc. through formal and in-service training.
To implement institutional improvement, notably of SNTC, to become active in identification, expansion, management and control of conservation areas.
To consider transfer Forestry and the Herbarium and Plant Genetic Conservation sections to MNRE or MTEC in order to concentrate biodiversity conservation activities.
To establish funds for protection and rehabilitation of the environment and biodiversity.

Legal

To revise and update present acts, and integrate into comprehensive legislation covering all aspects of biodiversity.
To introduce tax incentives on one hand and penalty systems on the other for companies which operate in environmentally acceptable, respectively unacceptable ways.
To strictly regulate the transfer of species and genetic resources, including their release into the wild.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

1978. Protection-worthy Areas Survey.

Masson, P. 1997. The Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity.

Remmelzwaal, A. 1996. Summary on Biodiversity and Nature Reserves Policy.

UNEP 1992. Convention on Biological Diversity.

UNEP 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MTEC, in particular the Environment Authority and the National Trust Commission, but with involvement of other ministries, notably MOAC and MNRE.

1.1.6 RURAL WATER

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in the development of water for rural purposes. Emphasis is on Rural Water Supply for domestic use, including public amenities. Other rural uses include water for livestock, irrigation and agro- and other rural industries. Water development for livestock and irrigation is further dealt with at level four. Water used for agro-industries is part of the Urban Action Plan.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Environment related

Erosion, siltation of water reservoirs and contamination of surface water caused by livestock.
Pollution of surface and ground water by industries and individuals.
Pollution of surface and ground water by the use of fertilizers and pesticides.
Lack of public awareness of health and environmental hazards caused by contaminated water.

General

Insufficient access to safe water supply and proper sanitation (less than 40 percent of the rural population).
Population growth: extremely difficult to provide water and sanitation services at the same pace as the high population growth.
Lack of political will: long-term infrastructure development often given low priority status.
Women have sole responsibility for providing domestic water.
Community participation not adequately integrated in government projects; current lack of local ownership.
Dependence on donor funding hampers smooth and continuous planning and implementation.
Boundary disputes between chieftaincies have negative effects on agreement on water rights and project implementation.

Technical

Lack of standardization; sector agencies (GOS and NGOs) employ various standards of design and construction for water supply and sanitation schemes.
Need for research and/or transfer of appropriate technology.
Problems of maintenance: the biggest single factor mitigating against continuous supply of safe water and sanitation.

Institutional

Insufficient linkages and coordination between water supply and sanitation, health, education and environmental protection.
Lack of intra- and inter-sectoral coordination in technical implementation.
Inadequate human resource development, resulting in shortage of trained staff.
Lack of reliable information; available data scattered, unconsolidated and difficult to analyse.
Insufficient legislation, or not implemented.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

Draft policy by the Rural Water Supply Board, dated October 1994, entitled 'Development of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in Swaziland'. Draft Water Act was proposed in 1996.

Broad Overall Objectives

To extend access to safe drinking water and appropriate sanitation to the whole population.
To achieve a sustainable balance in the use of rural water for the different needs and purposes.

Policy Principles

Several policy principles have already been identified at higher levels, such as the policy to give priority in water development to domestic use.

Access to safe water supplies and appropriate sanitation be increased at the fastest possible rate.
Priority be given to areas with greatest needs.

Policy Practical Elements

Rural water development planning be integrated with overall land use planning, especially infrastructural improvements and resettlement.
Water supply and sanitation planning and implementation be fully coordinated and integrated with primary health care and other related development programmes.
Rehabilitation of substandard water supply and sanitary systems be considered as part of the access increase programme.
Accepted technical standards of design and construction be fully applied in all project implementation.
International water quality guidelines be applied.
Community participation and responsibility sharing be fully integrated in water and sanitation development and maintenance programmes.
Transitional substandard improvements of the domestic water supply as by small dams be given proper attention and support.

Policy Supportive Elements

The commitment of Swaziland Government and the position and responsibility of CRDB and other institutions be clearly defined.
Legislation be updated and implemented.
Public awareness of water and sanitation related diseases be increased.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Most of the strategy elements in this section relate to rational use of water at the community level.

To fully integrate water development with overall land use plans, especially with respect to conservation, infrastructural improvements and resettlement.
To make comprehensive plans for the use of water for all requirements, such as domestic purposes, livestock, fisheries, small-scale irrigation, etc.
To implement all projects through people's participation, accompanied by community training in health and environmental aspects.
To shift responsibility for the operation and maintenance of community water works to community water committees.
To appraise the role of temporary substandard water supply as a means to improve the present situation on a transitional basis. Small dams can play an important role in improving domestic water supply, provided necessary measures are taken.
To revise the present RWSB strategy of water point connections in view of the present review of settlement policies toward concentrated forms of settlement.
To define precise targets in time and coverage for the planning and implementation of the safe water and sanitation programme, with secure funding commitments.
To design and construct water systems and latrines following accepted standards and low cost labour intensive technologies.
To monitor and inspect water quality on a regular basis, using accepted standards and methods.
To coordinate planning and implementation of rural water development through a central water authority, liaising with all parties involved.
To assess needs for training and manpower development and formulate programmes to enhance technical capabilities of the relevant institutions, especially with respect to design and construction, identification of priorities and execution of overall supervision.
To include information on water and sanitation related diseases in education programmes.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Chapman, C.R. 1994. Water Resources and Irrigation.

Mc Donald, Sir M. 1990. Sub-Saharan Africa Hydrological Assessment SADC Countries.

Piteau Assocs. 1992. Groundwater Resources of Swaziland.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Principal responsibility with MNRE, involvement of MHSW, MTEC, MOE and others.

1.1.7 RURAL SETTLEMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND INFRASTRUCTURE

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in rural settlement, environmental health and infrastructural development.

ISSUES SUMMARY

General/settlement

General rural living standards not satisfactory due to poor housing and inadequate electricity, water, telephone, road and public transport connections.
Present scattered rural settlement pattern not conducive to efficient provision of services and facilities.
Disruption by power lines of rural and ecological patterns; destruction of vegetation and fauna causing erosion and land degradation.
Severe environmental health problems due to contaminated water.
Lack of understanding by communities of relationship between health problems and pollution.
Lack of community participation and health facilities coordination in environmental health control, prevention and service delivery.

Roads/transport

Severe erosion caused by road construction.
Borrow pits for road construction material not rehabilitated.
Loss of indigenous vegetation in zone along newly constructed roads.
Lack of environmental guidelines for railways exploitation.
EIA not pursued in road construction.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

No official policies available. Draft policy elements appear in various documents, such as NPDP, Maguga resettlement policy, and the draft Agricultural Land Use Policy.

Broad Overall Objectives

To provide acceptable settlement and environmental health conditions through increased environmental management in conjunction with enhanced production opportunities, leading to improved rural livelihood and living conditions.
To promote and support rural development through expanded provision of infrastructural facilities and improvement of transport linkages.

Policy Principles

Planning for settlement and infrastructure be integrated in overall land use planning and environmental management.
Settlement and infrastructure be planned with minimal disruption of existing rural and ecological patterns, and maximum safety measures.
People and communities affected by development projects be compensated in such way that their livelihood and living conditions remain at least equal.

Policy Practical Elements

Settlement and resettlement be linked with provision of opportunities for improved production systems and increased income.
Environmental and human mitigation measures be included as integral part in development and resettlement programmes, with compensation arrangements for affected people and communities.
Environmental health care delivery and information be focused on communities.
Rural settlement be planned with integrated provisions for safe water delivery, proper sanitation and waste disposal.
Environmental conditions be monitored in settlement areas.
Rural supply systems be designed with maximum input by communities in operation and maintenance.
Roads and other infrastructural improvement be planned and executed with maximum economic and employment opportunities and access to services and facilities for communities.
Provision of electricity to rural areas be expanded and reliability be improved.
Telecommunication services be extended and intensified.

Policy Supportive Elements

Legal frameworks for settlement, environmental health conditions and infrastructure be reviewed, updated and enforced.
Information and education systems in rural development be improved and made accessible to communities.
Institutional improvements of roads department to improve capability in planning and maintenance of the roads network.
The environmental evaluation capacity of the roads department be strengthened.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Rural development needs a better coordination and planning of settlement, including resettlement, environmental health conditions and infrastructural improvements. Comprehensive strategy guidelines need be developed, especially for sensitive interventions such as resettlement, with special attention to migitating the negative effects of displacement. Detailed procedures and compensation arrangements are dealt with in specific action plans.

Considering the higher level rural strategy with respect to settlement, i.e. planning towards a more concentrated form of rural settlement, it is essential to improve the coordination of government and NGO's with the CRDB.

Overall environmental health strategy is already outlined at national level .

Settlement and environmental health care strategy

To inform, consult and involve all affected parties in resettlement programmes, in particular in decision making, preparation, implementation and monitoring.
To introduce concentrated settlement patterns in order to provide better facilities.
To monitor progress of settlement and resettlement programmes and evaluate their impact.
To give special attention in resettlement programmes to vulnerable groups, and to minimize social disruption by offering options in nearby locations.
To increase the effectiveness of environmental health programmes for communities through better coordination of all involved parties and services (government, private, NGO's, communities).
To emphasize environmental management in settlement planning and implementation.
To promote educational programmes pointing out the dangers of pollution and improper waste disposal.
To recruit and train environmental monitoring officers operating from existing rural centres.

Infrastructure improvement strategy

To use environmentally friendly methods of construction of roads, connections of water, electricity, telephone, etc.
To make all planning and construction of infrastructure subject to EIA.
To increase road and other infrastructure related safety by including all the necessary provisions, such as fencing, warnings, pedestrian safeways, etc in the planning and execution of projects.
To minimize the effects of road construction on the loss of indigenous vegetation and fauna through careful planning of the road alignment.
To minimize the impact of borrow pits by selecting the least harmful locations and by rehabilitation of the pits with the original soil and vegetation.
To reduce the risk of soil erosion along the road by constructing adequate drainage provisions and rehabilitation of the damaged strips along the road.
To create in RD the post of environmental evaluation officer to advise, appraise and review in all environmental matters related to road planning and construction.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

World Bank 1990. Operational Directive 4.30: Involuntary Resettlement.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MHUD, MNRE, MOAC, MPWT, MPSI, MHSW.

1.1.8 TOURISM

Strictly speaking, the tourism development policy does not fall under the rural land and environment policy. It is accommodated here considering that most tourism activities are related to rural land use and its environment, most prominently the nature reserves. However, it is obvious that strong links exist with the urban and peri-urban policies (e.g. accommodation, tourist markets, sports, recreation).

ISSUES SUMMARY

Environment

Role and potential of ecotourism insufficiently emphasized and promoted.
Importance of biodiversity in the overall context of ecology and tourism not adequately addressed.
Erosion and land degradation (along roads, hill sides, valleys, etc.) not conducive to tourism in general and ecotourism in particular.
Pollution, waste and rubbish dumps occurring in areas with potential for tourism.
Inadequate ecological management of tourist attractions.
Insufficient development of national parks.

Management

Urgent need for a central tourism coordinating agency.
Lack of a comprehensive national tourism development policy and strategy.
Need to improve management of tourist sites and events.
Lack of community involvement in managing tourist attractions.
Lack of flexibility in the tourist industry to follow market developments and adapt to changes in the tourism sector.
Need to improve collaboration between the public and private sectors.
Lack of cooperation between owners/managers of game parks and nature reserves; there is competition rather than coordination.
Decline in occupation rate of hotels and other facilities.
Short duration of the average stay of tourists in Swaziland.
Favourable location of Swaziland in the region not optimally exploited.

Administration/Facilities

Insufficient promotion, advertising and marketing of Swaziland tourist attractions.
Constraints with immigration and customs operations, including opening hours of border posts, visa restrictions, luggage handling and import declarations.
Accessibility by air not favourable due to low flight frequencies, low capacity and airport irregularities.
Problems of tour operators with Customs Union permits.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

An undated draft Swaziland National Tourism Development Policy available, prepared by the then Ministry of Broadcasting, Information and Tourism. This draft has a strong bias towards strengthening government capabilities and is weakly defined in terms of practical strategies. There is a current initiative to formulate a comprehensive policy.

Broad Overall Objective

To establish, support and promote a sustainable, efficient and diversified tourist industry, based on the broad scala of integrated cultural and ecological attractions of Swaziland.

Policy Principles

Tourism be developed in harmony with the cultural traditions and environmental values.
Tourism be considered as inextricably linked with the environment and natural resources and be managed accordingly.

Policy Practical Elements

Tourism be promoted making full use of the scenic, environmental and biological diversity of Swaziland.
Ecotourism be promoted and developed as one of the key areas of tourist interest.
Archaeological, historical and cultural heritage sites be safeguarded and where possible made accessible for tourism.
Game park/nature reserve facilities be carefully appraised and monitored with respect to carrying capacity.
Tax on tourism be raised and the revenue be used for the management of natural and cultural resources.

Policy Supportive Elements

Existing legislation be appraised and comprehensive legislation on tourism be formulated, endorsed and implemented.
Education programmes be introduced to emphasize the economic and environmental importance of tourism.
Tourism awareness campaigns be formulated and executed to identify opportunities for tourism and to introduce sustainable communal management of sites and attractions.
Research be conducted with respect to tourist markets in order to identify and analyse demands, priorities and preferences.
Institutional support be strengthened to promote tourism, with proper definition of one central coordinating body consisting of representatives of the public and private sectors.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

Overall strategic approach

On the basis of the above proposed policy it is important to work out a coherent overall strategic framework in which the separate strategy elements and action plans will fit. On a national basis it is essential to define priorities in the development of tourism.

To develop tourism in zonal concentrations of major activities and attractions.

A pattern of small-scale elements and scattered locations is not attractive to the average tourist. Planning of zonal development should take advantage of recent regional developments and proposals, as the Maputo corridor and the proposed linkages of parks and reserves across the border in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. The Lebombo ridge of Swaziland forms an essential link in this chain.

To strongly promote ecotourism as essential in the overall context of tourism, with strong emphasis on developing the potential of the communal rural areas.

Ecotourism is one of the fastest growing forms of tourism. Swaziland has an excellent potential to develop ecotourism. The biodiversity of the game parks and nature reserves should form the backbone, with cultural and historic attractions as added values. The communal rural areas are largely unexplored and unexploited in terms of ecotourism. Programmes should be worked out for tourists to visit unspoilt rural areas, with the opportunity to contact communities, and seeing the daily routine in villages and homesteads.

The various options of ecotourism need to be offered in attractive combinations and packages, supported by biophysical, cultural and historic background information as well as by accurate location and route descriptions.

To attract ecotourism Swaziland has to ensure that the impact of tourism on the environment is minimal. Swaziland has also to demonstrate that her natural and ecological resources are sustainably managed. At present there is room for improvement. Environmental Impact Assessment has to be carried out by all developers in all relevant areas.

To ensure community participation in the planning, decision making, development and management of tourist attractions, especially if these occur associated with the community.

There are many opportunities to develop tourism activities managed by communities. Emphasis should be put on the rural areas, but not be restricted to them: urban and peri-urban areas also have communities which can be involved in the running of tourist attractions, e.g. markets.

Community involvement can take place in many different ways, such as in the management of archaeological monuments and cultural sites (e.g. bushman paintings and engravings), folklore shows, handicraft production, showing the traditional rural Swazi way of life, local markets, guidance to springs and caves, scenic walking routes showing the beauty of the landscape, picnic sites, impressive erosion sites, traditional land use, etc.

Communities need to be activated and guided in the development of tourism. Workshops and community meetings have to be arranged in order to make communities familiar with tourist opportunities and assist them with the planning.

To establish a National Tourism Development Board with representatives of all stakeholders in the tourist industry (government, NGO's, private sector, game park/reserves management, communities, tourist markets, etc.).

The coverage should be as wide as possible and also include representatives from sectors or departments where interests may be opposite to those of the tourist industry (e.g. roads, manufacturing industry, plantation forestry, agriculture). The board as such should also function as a forum.

Tasks include the following:

To enhance international cooperation.

To strengthen liaison with regional and international tourist institutions.

To promote intersectoral collaboration, especially between competing government ministries and departments.

To advise and assist communities in developing tourist opportunities.

To coordinate management of tourist sites with all stakeholders, including communities.

Practical Strategy Elements

The tourism industry to be developed with the flexibility to respond to changes in tourism patterns and tourists demands.
To expand the tourism base in order to prolong the average stay of tourists in Swaziland.

This may be achieved by creating additional tourist locations and destinations or by making attractive combinations of existing ones. It is important to compare the offered tours and packages with comparable destinations in neighbouring South Africa, in terms of accommodation, quality, price, security and variety. The tourist industry in the region is very competitive.

To identify and prioritize places of tourist interest and to develop sites and attractions in an ecologically sound manner.
To coordinate, link and integrate small tourist components into attractive packages.
To identify and describe scenic routes to link cultural, historical and other interesting sites.

The above strategic points need to be addressed in a systematic way. The aim should be to define a variable and flexible set of well documented ecotrips and other tours. The following procedure can be applied, the first part with respect to the inventory of each individual site, the second to the formation of packages and ecotrips:

(1) - Identify and categorize places of interest (cultural, historical, biophysical, landscape, preservation, etc.), actual and planned.
Define and map the locations and access roads.
Collect background information.
Complete comprehensive documentation for each site.

(2) - Combine sites and areas into packages of attractions with various length and interest, following the zonal approach.
Identify and describe scenic routes to link the tourist destinations.
Prepare documentation on ecotrips and other touristic tours, including maps and route descriptions.
To improve the infrastructure of tourist attractions, such as access roads, public facilities, water, electricity, communications, health service, emergency services, security.
To balance tourist activities with other major land uses such as forestry, agriculture, mining, industry etc., and where possible include these in the overall package of touristic destinations.
To link tourism arrangements with set dates and venues of major recurrent cultural events such as Umhlanga and Incwala. Dates need to be fixed far in advance to include the events on the international tourist calendar.
To further develop and secure international dual-location package tours with KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga/Northern Transvaal destinations.

Operational and Supportive Strategies

Present recommendations as in the draft tourism policy suggest a strong coordinating and active role of the Tourism Department in matters as promotion of tourism overseas. This should not be the responsibility for the government alone, but be one of the main tasks of the proposed Tourism Board. The relevant recommendations need be reviewed.

The most efficient way of promoting Swaziland tourism is probably not through the establishment of Swaziland tourist offices overseas and additional staff with embassies and consulates. Such operation is going to be very costly and its efficiency may be doubted. There are too few diplomatic posts to ensure a comprehensive coverage and network.

The preferred option would be to enhance the liaison of the Department of Tourism and the proposed Tourism Development Board with commercial tourist bureaus and tour operators.

To improve marketing, advertising, dissemination of information and sale of Swaziland tourist destinations through enhanced liaison of the Swaziland Government and Tourist Development Board with international tourist bureaus and tour operators.
To improve the information base on tourism, including statistical analysis and research.
To improve administrative support and planning in the Tourism Department though improving the training and budget facilities. In this respect an appraisal of the present capabilities and functioning would be required.
To review and extend border opening hours, including assessment of the feasibility to re-open the Mhlumeni border post.
To improve border services, including immigration and customs control. To introduce joint Swaziland/RSA single border stops.
To review and facilitate visa requirements for tourists in order to eliminate uncertainties, especially with individual travellers (from e.g. EU countries), which may influence the decision making on selecting holiday destinations.
To introduce Environmental Management Plans in order to improve the environmental aspects of hotel and other facilities (sewerage, solid waste treatment, water and energy saving, etc.).
To introduce a Tourist Tax System, which revenue should be used to support the Tourism Development Board and the rural communities in the management of touristic sites.
To improve licensing procedures for casinos.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Remmelzwaal, A. 1996. Summary Paper on Tourism (with Annexes).

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Primarily MTEC, secondarily MNRE and MEE, but also with MOAC, MPWT & MHUD involvement.

1.1.9 RURAL ENERGY

This policy is to provide practical directions towards implementation of the policies of levels one and two above in energy development. The rural energy action plan has strong links with other action plans, particularly with forestry, settlements and infrastructure.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Inadequate or unaffordable supply of energy; non-availability largely related to poverty.
Dispersed nature of homesteads makes provision of energy services, in particular electricity, difficult and expensive.
Wood reserves under pressure; the total annual wood consumption is estimated to exceed the total sustainable wood supply by 30 percent; role of indigenous woodlands not adequately addressed.
Community woodlot projects only partially successful.
Use of paraffin in households a source of health hazard, as is the long term exposure to wood and coal smoke.
Lack of promotion of fuel-efficient stoves and/or fuel switching.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

The framework for an overall National Energy Policy is currently being formulated. A task force will be charged with producing the final policy.

Broad overall objective

To secure a sufficient and reliable supply of energy in the short, medium and long term which is economically viable, environmentally benign, and socially acceptable.

Policy principle

A balanced variety of energy resources and technologies be promoted, including an energy market that encourages sustainability of the rural community environment.

Policy Practical Elements

Priority be given to the development of local energy sources, especially in the short to medium term planning.
Electrification of rural areas be pursued, ensuring that connection costs and tariff structure make electricity accessible to large number of homesteads.
Priority given to improve energy services to rural areas with settlement concentration and economic activity initiatives.
Appropriate infrastructure be developed to ensure sustainable energy delivery.
Local entrepreneurs be supported to be key players in the energy supply chain.

Policy Supportive Elements

Energy awareness be featured as a key element in environmental education of communities.
Information on energy options be promoted through the media, particularly radio.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

The National Energy Management Committee to address the relationship between energy and the environment.
To appraise and reactivate the Community Woodlot project in collaboration with the Forestry Section of MOAC; emphasis to be given to indigenous species, but not excluding exotics, especially wattle.
To encourage the use of fuel-efficient stoves and to promote local production; to appraise the use of various sources of energy such as coal, wood, butane, paraffin, etc. with respect to cost, efficiency, pollution, health and safety.
To overcome the barrier of initial capital cost of connection for a supply of electricity through the Rural Electrification Study.
To pursue the development of alternative sources of energy such as solar, micro-hydro and biogas.
To promote integrated and balanced energy systems (solar for lighting and entertainment, gas for cooking, coal for heating, etc.) and to develop the infrastructure to support them.
To develop the recycling of wood waste from the plantation forestry as a cheap source of energy for communities.
To introduce incentives for conservation and efficient distribution of energy.
To involve and support the communities, especially women, in energy planning and decision making processes; to encourage local business people to become involved in the supply chain.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Lasschuit, P.E. 1994. Rural Household Energy Strategies in Swaziland.

Capricon 1996. Rural Electrification in Swaziland.

UNDP/World Bank 1987. Swaziland: Issues and Options in the Energy Sector.

Commonwealth Secretariat 1997. Utilisation of Renewable Energy in Swaziland.

Davis, M. et al. 1997. Rural Electrification in Swaziland - Phase III policy formulation.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Primarily MNRE, but with involvement of many other ministries such as MOAC, MHUD, MEPD, MEE, MPWT, MTEC.

1.2 PERI-URBAN LAND AND ENVIRONMENT

By definition, peri-urban land deals with the "coal face" of one of the most important social phenomena throughout the developing world: rural to urban migration. It must also deal with the urban expansion based upon the natural population growth within the urban and peri-urban population. Peri-urban areas are outside formal urban boundaries and urban jurisdictions which are in a process of urbanisation and which therefore progressively assume many of the characteristics of urban areas.

Peri-urban areas can be defined as areas having all or some of the following interrelated characteristics:

fast and unplanned growth resulting in, amongst other things, negative environmental health issues and environmental degradation
Jurisdiction is unclear or duplicated in matters of planning, land tenure and land transfer.
Tenure of residents is not always based on clearly defined and enforceable title.
Planning and building guidelines and regulations, the Rating Act, and provision of urban services are not applied.
Service infrastructure is inadequate to meet even basic needs.
Social infrastructure does not meet basic needs.
A significant proportion of residents are in lower income categories.
Unplanned settlements to cater to the growing rental market, the rental market alone catering to demand.

As peri-urban areas are in a process of transition they cannot be precisely defined spatially as they change over time. However, there is general agreement that peri-urban areas in Swaziland are primarily those within the corridor from Ngwenya border through Mbabane to Manzini. Other urban centres are also beginning to show some of these characteristics.

Essentially, the peri-urban land and environment policy is to address the land and environment-related problems associated with the spread of urban areas.

It is recognised that the division "rural/peri-urban/urban" has fuzzy boundaries, especially the rural/peri-urban divide. The degree of applicability of this policy in rural areas will depend upon the degree to which the dominant motives for new settlements are urban-related.

ISSUES SUMMARY

General

The current high population growth rate, and the projected increase of the urban population from one third to two-thirds of the population by 2025.
Social and economic costs of unmanaged peri-urban growth.
The interface of rural and urban policies.
The practice of maintaining both urban/peri-urban dwellings and rural homesteads.
The role of the peri-urban informal sector.
The current economic rationality in dwelling in peri-urban areas in:
- free use of facilities paid for by ratepayers
- not having to pay rates
- proximity to the workplace saving time and transport costs
- the relative cost in khonta-ing for peri-urban SNL compared to the cost of freehold land
- lack of legal documentation costs on SNL
- lack of development controls resulting in availability of cheap accommodation.

Management/Institutions

Inadequate management mechanisms to meet the particular demands of peri-urban dwellers.
Public/private sector relationships such as infrastructure delivery.
Coordination of infrastructure provision such as water supply and government land delivery, in particular considering urban boundaries.
The current and future roles of peri-urban traditional authorities.
Effects on land of transfer of governance to the urban authorities under the Urban Government Policy.
Using formalisation of tenure and financing of tenure towards ensuring that the use of peri-urban land helps to establish a culture of entrepreneurship.

Changes in land tenure/land use

Urban encroachment on existing rural uses.
Land supply to meet future demand, more particularly land banking.
Mismatch between land tenure arrangements and social realities. For example, there is a breakdown of traditional systems being replaced by transfers of occupancy without any corresponding transfer of clearly defined enforceable and transferable rights.
Rapid stratification of residents into owners/landlords and tenants.
Changes in land use, with special attention to permanently retaining rural as open space elements in urban areas on the best soils, and maintaining balance between urban and rural land use.

Environment

Environmental degradation and rehabilitation.
Waste disposal, in particular the use of treated urban water and sewage waste on peri-urban agricultural land.
Lack of interest in or attention to retaining functional green areas - arable land, forests, green areas.
The pre-emptive nature of much unregulated peri-urban development against the implementation of adequate health and safety standards.
Little access to protected water supplies in the informal settlement areas, leading to high incidence in diseases and mortality.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

The peri-urban land and environment policy has to address the two main land uses in this zone of transition from rural to urban, namely use as green belt (recreation, parks, forests, agriculture, horticulture) and as residential or industrial/commercial, and cross reference with sectoral policies.

There may be no need to distinguish subordinate peri-urban land and environment policies. If so, the complete peri-urban land and environment policy remains at the second level.

Status of Policy

Non-existent, but is to be addressed under the Urban Policy initiative of the Urban Development Project (UDP).

Broad Overall Objectives

To provide infrastructure and tenure in response to demand, the former ensuring adequate health standards and safe services in accord with the requirements for incorporation into an urban area.
To direct and channel urban expansion and market forces towards urban amenity, the latter term including the retention of green areas.
To mitigate the problems related to spontaneous human settlements through policies and programmes that anticipate unplanned settlements.

Policy Principles

Green spaces and vegetation cover in peri-urban areas are to be recognised as essential for biological and hydrological balance and economic development and treated as such.
Securely tenured land be made accessible to as many individual Swazis as demanded in a peri-urban context, within the parameters of affordability, costs and mandates.
The "User Pays" principle be applied to infrastructure delivery.
Peri-urban land be managed on the integrated principle of the protection of existing property rights and the incremental provision of property rights to migrants.
The conservation and sustainable use of peri-urban biodiversity be protected, including forests, local habitats and species biodiversity.
Healthy and environmentally sound agricultural activities be integrated into the planning of peri-urban areas.

Policy Practical Elements

Markets be enabled to work as the prime method of land delivery in peri-urban areas, particularly in reaching levels not currently catered for, i.e. the lower income levels.
Transparent, comprehensive, easily accessible and progressive taxation and incentive mechanisms be applied to stimulate efficient, environmentally sound and equitable use of land. The full potential of land-based and other forms of taxation be exploited in mobilising financial resources for service provision by local authorities.
A Land Development Trading Account be instituted, to be utilised for infrastructure and land delivery.

Policy Supportive Elements

The following supportive elements, already identified at national level, are particularly relevant within the peri-urban areas.

Land information systems and practices for managing land be developed and implemented, including land value assessment, and made readily available.
Comprehensive inventories of publicly held land be prepared, and programmes be designed to make them available for development (or to protect them from development as the case may be).
Further develop appropriate cadastral systems and streamline land registration procedures.
Land codes and legal frameworks be developed to define the nature of real property and the formally recognised rights.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General Strategic Approach

It would be practical to approach the peri-urban sphere with an inner and outer zone, and incorporate the concept in the peri-urban policy. The outer zone shows the first signs of urbanization, such as increased settlement for residential purposes (very often commuters) and decreased agricultural activities. The inner zone is characterized by a variety of non rural activities, often non controlled and leading to conflicts over land use, land tenure, etc. Proper planning in the outer zone would have a positive effect on the development in the inner zone. Inner and outer zones shift outwards.

The dynamic over these zones can be divided into three stages:

Primary stage:

To define all property rights. The de facto rights on all land, including freehold, will be made de jure unless they conflict with existing de jure rights. In the peri-urban context, that may be based on the assumption that no urban development rights will be assumed to the owner of peri-urban land. The rights then not expressed de jure reside with His Majesty.
To define which areas are to have which uses in the future. For example, some localities may be retained as green areas, others used for low cost housing, etc.
Once these rights and structure plans are clarified, policy can be effected. The government could then direct market forces towards policy implementation by the zoning-restricted trading or non-trading of the relevant property rights.
In addition to this prime approach, a government land bank could be maintained in the peri-urban areas, and earmark which property rights will never be exercised.

Secondary stage:

To utilise the peri-urban land so purchased in a way that will assist the development of a culture of entrepreneurship, and in enhancing the environment. For example, as towns already have the transport infrastructure, model farms to teach relevant economic and environmental skills and land uses could be located on land designated to be retained as a green area, or only developed in the long term.
To provide the peri-urban land to be developed in the medium term with subdivisional plans, the sites delineated by intermediate tenure, and a certificate of occupancy granted with the holder of that certificate having first right of refusal upon the government's offer of sale when services and full tenure are established.

Tertiary stage:

To supply infrastructure and regularise tenure, using the skills and experience now being gained through the Urban Development Project, and examining other possible options consistent with encouraging a culture of entrepreneurship,
For areas not included in the UDP, such development could occur by releasing unoccupied land for private development.
Government development could be financed through a Land Development Trading Account - a rolling fund, whereby the government develops land using land-created wealth, which funds are then repaid to the fund when the land is sold.
To facilitate the emergence of a well functioning land market in the peri-urban areas by legislation based upon principles of land economics. Well-functioning land markets can only occur with clearly defined, enforceable and transferable property rights in place. They can be recognised by the ease of entry and the ease of performing transactions, both of which depend on the availability of adequate and timely land information delivery, secure tenure arrangements, and registration/recording mechanisms responsive to demand. Thus, land markets work well where these conditions are present in some degree and do not work when they are absent.

Practical Strategy Elements

It is necessary that a single land management authority be formed which has the authority and ability to coordinate the peri-urban settlement process. Moreover, this authority requires a broader view than simply peri-urban areas, in order to be proactive: if it were to focus solely upon peri-urban land, its management would of necessity become reactive.
At the peri-urban level, an integrated functioning of the Natural Resources Board, the Human Settlements Authority, and the Environment Authority is called for. Further, it is essential that the traditional authorities on peri-urban SNL become part of the process of change.

Community Participation Strategy

Community participation would be the key to implementation of the above general strategic approach. The communities in situ would be educated by the proposed authority to ensure that new immigrants comply with the general strategy, insofar as it would be seen to be in the best interests of both the in situ communities and the new immigrants. The form that this community participation would take is a subject of the further development of this policy under the Urban Development Project.

Supportive Strategies

To provide clear and enforced procedures and guidelines to be followed by peri-urban migrants, including delegated areas to settle.
To institutionalise mechanisms which will allow the recognition of incremental property rights, the intermediate definition of survey boundaries and so on (as required by the general strategy) as way stations towards stricter and more formal tenure.
Ensure simple procedures for the transfer of property rights and conversion of land use within a comprehensive policy framework, including the protection of the environment and, where appropriate, arable land.
Establish pilot areas of land to test policies and their implementation.
Land Information Systems, incorporating the regular use of aerial/satellite photography, to monitor the adherence of settlements to the strategy.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Farvacque/McAuslan 1992. Reforming Urban Land Policies and Institutions in Developing Countries.

GOS/MNRE et al 1990. Urbanisation in Swaziland: Challenges of the 90's.

GOS/MHUD 1996. Habitat II: Swaziland National Report.

Lukhele, S. 1985. Customary Control over Residential Development in the Peri-urban Area of Manzini

McDermott, M.D. 1996(b). Issues Paper for the Economic Vusela and National Development Strategy.

UNCHS 1996. The Habitat Agenda.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Predominantly MHUD with the relevant urban authority, MOAC, MEE, MNRE, MTEC.

1.3 URBAN LAND AND ENVIRONMENT

The urban land and environment policy (ULEP), is broadly focussed on the urban context, and again subject to the NLEP, and provides the policy basis for structure plans, the urban property market, environmental practices, and government land management and allocation. "Urban" refers to the definition in the settlement hierarchy of the NPDP.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Environment, land use and resource management

Loss of traditional and genetic variety near urban centres and along roads.
The threat to the urban environment without adequate channelling of market forces.
Uncontrolled urban growth pre-empting implementation of any overall vision for the towns.
Lack of protection of biodiversity - for example, harvesting indigenous trees to fuel fires in urban areas.
Concentration of pollutants into freshwater systems from impervious surfaces and from sewage outlets (eutrophication etc.).
Shortage of health facilities in informal settlement areas.
Lack of enforcement of the Natural Resources Regulations 1951, freezing development for 33 metres both sides of stream banks.
A general shortage of suitable land for schools and sporting facilities.
Inadequate infrastructure, in particular road networks and maintenance.
Increasing pollution and lack of green spaces resulting in environmental health hazards.
Inadequate water supply, sanitation and service delivery in a large proportion of the urban milieu.
Solid waste disposal practices that make it expensive to implement resource recycling.
Air pollution from commercial and domestic incinerators.
Inefficient exploitation of exotic timber reserves in urban areas.

Land tenure, land economics, population

Lack of enough land at the right price, with the right amenity and in the right location.
Government land allocation practices and plot pricing policies inimical to the emergence of a properly functioning land market.
Urban revitalization required in some areas where market activity is pre-empted by a clash between existing tenures and current commercial and planning requirements.
Increasing homelessness and expansion of squatter settlements.
A widening gap between those with property rights and those without, with concomitant crime, unemployment and underemployment.
Private sector resistance to government land regulations.
Regulations are not at the minimum level compatible with both the easy access of housing to services and the preservation of community wide interests and the environment.
Market mechanisms that stand in the way of market accessibility to the poor because of their high costs and slow delivery of services.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

Non-existent. However, structure plans are in place in most urban areas, providing a de facto base of policy decisions. These should be reviewed upon the adoption by cabinet of any such policy. Further, a related policy - the Urban Government Policy - has received cabinet assent, and a layman's draft of a new Urban Government Act and Regulations to implement same has been prepared. Moreover, a Physical Planning and Development Control Act, consolidating much current land-related legislation, is to be prepared in 1997.

Broad Overall Objectives

To provide well-functioning, safe and environmentally healthy urban areas with infrastructure and amenities appropriate to the various use types, as affordable as practicable to all income groups.
To allow the fullest possible expression of short-term market forces within the parameters of a socially, economically and environmentally desirable and sustainable long-term framework.
To enhance levels of urban biodiversity.

Policy Principles

The emergence of a properly functioning property market be facilitated, in particular for those having no option to illegal settlement due to insufficient property allocation mechanisms.
Departure from market value is prima facie evidence of inequitable resource distribution.
The institutions and instruments that provide for the management and operation of urban land markets be based upon the principles of equity, efficiency, flexibility and participation.
Medium density developments be encouraged in limiting the per capita influence on the natural environment in general, and in being a more economically rational utilisation of infrastructure.
Pollution not be allowed to enter the public domain without cost to the polluter.
Urban biodiversity to be a required objective in the management of public open spaces and government land.

Policy Practical Elements

Maximum utilisation of infrastructure be promoted by encouraging densification from low to medium density, for example including allowing 2-3 storey buildings for urban schools.
Legal instruments, such as the UDP's 99-year lease, be used to facilitate the integration of the urban poor into the legal city, and work towards an integration of formal and informal systems of tenure.
Structure plans designed to be responsive to the needs of the whole range of socio-economic urban residents.
Participatory systems of adjudication and dispute settlement be developed for urban residents, including landlord/tenant disputes.

Policy Supportive Elements

Institute professional land management, enabling sensitive monitoring and evaluation of policy implementation.
Develop transparent, simple and fair administrative processes and procedures to handle urban land and environment issues and involve private sector actors in the process.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General Strategic Approach

To develop and support improved land management practices that deal comprehensively with potentially competing urban land development requirements for housing, retailing, commercial, industrial, transportation, green space, agricultural, protected areas and other vital needs.
To improve structure plans and government land allocation procedures to ensure the provision and reservation of areas for public facilities such as schools, health and recreational areas, as required according to population density projections.
To review the urban planning and management framework towards ensuring its capacity to fulfill the above objectives.

Practical Strategy Elements

As far as it is practical, the local authorities, in cooperation with NGO's and the SEA, are to be used to educate the public concerning sustainable development and the impacts of individual behaviour upon the environment. The first step in this strategy, therefore, is to ensure that local authorities attain the capacity to perform this role through a strong relationship with the SEA.

Local authorities to license firewood vendors and limit the fuel species for sale to exotic species.
Local authorities to discourage, as they deem appropriate, the use of domestic and commercial incinerators, and in particular the burning of toxic/carcinogenic substances (eg some plastics).
Local authorities to ban the burning of grasslands without a permit.
The subdivision approval process to include cognisance of what vegetation is going to be affected by the development.
Local authorities to encourage cleaning-up operations by schools and civic organisations (service clubs etc) with a parallel public awareness campaign where possible.
SEA to advise local authorities on practical measures to encourage biodiversity.

Supportive Strategies

To confer legal powers at community level to undertake some land management tasks.
Introduce a land and housing market assessment system as soon as possible.
SEA to advise local authorities re bye-laws, and environmental issues within their purview.
Local government to ensure strict compliance with building regulations on major projects, which supportive strategy involves a review of current practices.
The establishment and legal recognition of professional and technical level institutes and associations to self-monitor and regulate commercial and environmental behaviour in land-related disciplines.
Government to review and if accepted establish procedures to enforce the existing dormant provisions of the Land Tax Order No. 35 / 1974 and the Town Planning Act No. 45 / 1961(refer "Status of Policy" above, last sentence).
Local authorities to implement the land-related recommendations of the Urban Government Policy.
Allocation principles for government land to be reviewed to enhance property market performance, and to enable equitable and transparent land distribution.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Aitken/Gregory 1994. "Report on Land Resource Management".

Fisher et al. 1991. Urban Land Management and Land Information Management in Swaziland.

Burrow & Partners 1993 Institutional Review, Land Management, Land Tenure and Survey.

Burrow & Partners 1993.Land and housing Market Study.

GOS/MHUD 1993. Statement of Sectoral Policy.

GOS/MHUD 1996. Habitat II: Swaziland National Report.

McAuslan, P. 1985. Urban Land and Shelter for the Poor.

UNHCS 1996. The Habitat Agenda.

World Bank 1993. Housing: Enabling Markets to Work.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

Especially MHUD inclusive of strong representation from local government authorities, but also MTEC, MNRE and MEE: MOAC, particularly in the context of urban agriculture and utilisation of green corridors and belts within the expanded urban areas (refer 1.3.3.0. below).

1.3.1 RESIDENTIAL

This policy is to deal with the social, economic and environmental impacts of residential land (including delivery and pricing), subject to the NLEP and ULEP provisions. Like peri-urban land and environment policy, the activities and objectives of the Urban Development Project are to be closely coordinated with this policy.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Access to Housing

Inadequate serviced land for residential purposes for low-income households. Over half the urban population lives in informal settlements, with concomitant threats to environmental health.
The formal residential property market does not cater for the needs of the majority of urban residents.
High cost and low affordability of land and housing. Residential land is unaffordable to most, for many reasons inclusive of plot size requirements.
Housing finance availability, for low income groups in particular.
A high proportion of serviced and other land withheld from the market for speculative purposes (more specifically, to capture gains in land value resulting from public investments or general social and economic forces).
Surveyed and serviced land has not kept pace with land use requirements in certain market sectors, and exceeds demand in others.
The supply of affordable rental accommodation and the legal rights and obligations of both tenants and owners.

Infrastructure and Facilities

Insufficient infrastructure and services within urban areas.
A shortage of affordable, physically accessible and environmentally acceptable public transport.
The supply of and access to adequate quantities of safe drinking water.
Inadequate sanitation or environmentally sound waste management.
Access to employment, markets and retail outlets.
Access to power and communication services.
Safety and security.
Contamination of residential land (e.g. by asbestos and other environmental health aspects of construction) and the lack of awareness of same.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

An Urban Housing Policy received cabinet approval in 1993, but has not as yet been implemented. A Plot Pricing Policy has been formulated within MHUD which should be revisited as part of this exercise and examined in the context of the obligations under Habitat II.

Broad overall objective

Provision of adequate and environmentally healthy shelter for all in urban areas.

Policy Principles

All urban settlements be sustainably managed.
Urban densification be increased from the current low level to medium level, insofar as the densities remain compatible with social and environmental amenity.
Active participation of the private sector, both formal and informal, be encouraged in land and housing delivery.
Recognition of the right of access to adequate shelter of the destitute, in particular street children.
Houses be allowed to also serve as functional workplaces, within the parameters of environmental health and taking into account the economic realities typical of the locality.

Policy Practical Elements

Aspects of regulatory and legal frameworks be strengthened to enable markets to work, and those aspects that restrict the market without demonstrably redeeming social or environmental benefits be weakened or repealed.
Encourage the market-based emergence of a "bridge" of housing types and values between the present informal and formal levels.
Institute market and credit access for low-income earners, including involving local institutions in the provision of micro-credit.
Stimulate private sector investment in the housing market by encouraging joint ventures and providing clear coordination between the public and the private sector.

Policy Supportive Elements

Legal codes to facilitate small scale, corporate, and cooperative land development activities be revised, including to provision of access to credit to such bodies.
Local authorities to encourage the growth of suitable indigenous plants in residential areas.
Self-built housing be promoted within Structure Plans and Building Regulatory requirements.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General Strategic Approach

To enable property market forces to work, and channel them into socially and environmentally desirable directions. This will allow the identification of those whose socio-economic circumstances put them below the reach of potential ownership or rental market enfranchisement, who may then be targetted for humanitarian aid and shelter programmes.

Practical Strategy Elements

Residential Land Management

To incorporate a capacity for housing market assessment within the proposed nationwide Land Information System.
To investigate land allocation mechanisms to bring about more equitable distribution of land; in particular, to ensure strict compliance with terms of agreement of sale.
To simplify and ensure the transparency and accountability of procedures, mechanisms and forms used in connection with land transactions.
To reform land tenure in order to strengthen tenure security and facilitate the provision of infrastructure.
To encourage the enactment and market acceptance of tenure legislation (such as Sectional Titles) which promote densification to medium density levels.
To set government instruments in place to monitor property market performance for compliance with taxation and other laws.
To encourage the initiatives of the Water Services Corporation in the continued and extended supply of safe drinking water to urban areas, and the WSC's coordination with other urban service suppliers, and with other water providers.
To make full use of existing infrastructure in urban areas and encourage optimal population density on serviced land.
To develop mechanisms to periodically assess what is happening on the ground with regard to land rights in urban informal areas.
To increase access to training for private sector participants in urban land management and development.
To integrate the provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and solid waste management.
To assist NGO's in the provision of shelter for the destitute through government property management and other mechanisms as appropriate.

Housing Finance

To establish cooperative housing societies (following the recommendations in Kaul report, below).
To expedite the implementation of the Basle accord, which gives a lower risk rating to banks' mortgage portfolios.
To stimulate the creation of new longer-term deposit instruments for banks - eg "housing certificates with the same tax status as "share" investors have in the SBS.
To review legislation and institutions with a view to stimulating the capital market and forming a secondary mortgage market targeted to the relevant income groups.

Community Participation Strategy

To institute a participatory approach based primarily upon local government elections, but secondarily upon encouragement of special interest groups and NGOs, and community organisations for locale-specific issues.
To establish a formal liaison committee in each urban area to facilitate effective cooperation between traditional and modern authorities, in activities such as care for the destitute.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Dlamini, M. 1993.The Habitable World: Promoting Sustainable Human Settlements Development.

Kaul, S. 1996. Housing Finance for Low Income Households in Swaziland.

World Bank 1996. Swaziland Financial Sector Study.

MINISTERIAL INVOLVEMENT

MHUD, MNRE.

1.3.2 COMMERCIAL, RETAIL & INDUSTRIAL

These three related policies are to address the specific issues around the commercial and industrial activities and properties, and in particular their adequacy in implementing the requirements of the NDS, NLEP and ULEP. The industrial policy is of particular relevance to the SEAP.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Land

Historically created plot sizes often obstructive to current planning, retail, industrial and commercial requirements.
Commercial, retail and industrial activities are increasingly international, highlighting the pressures concerning national/international land ownership.
Lack of a rational commercial hierarchy.
Inadequate parking facilities to support commercial/retail uses.
The physical location, control and role of street vendors.

Environmental

Continuing contamination of air, water and land, despite scientific research proving or suggesting crippling, stunting, carcinogenic and other health-related effects.
A narrow focus on job creation, without reference to the broad, longer term economic and social effects of contamination.
Significant current and potential environmental health difficulties with current solid waste disposal sites.
Littering, the shortage of disposal facilities and of anti-littering incentives.
Water used for agricultural and other industries, and its reintroduction into the environment after use.
Neither polluters, for example the transport industry, nor pollutants, for example by air or groundwater contamination, limit themselves to confined geographical areas.
Fuel tank leaks from service stations, oil and battery disposal from garages.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policies

Non-existent. However, there are several legislative (and therefore de facto) policy provisions concerning solid and industrial waste; the 1996 Solid Waste Disposal Regulations under the SEA Act are of particular relevance.

Broad Overall Objectives

To ensure that access to suitable land is never an inhibiting factor for sustainable commercial, retail and industrial development.
To ensure that commercial, retail and industrial activity does not compromise the quality of life of anyone, in terms of the developmental potential of children and the health and lifespan of all citizens.
To ensure that Swaziland becomes and remains within all internationally accepted limits of commercial and industrial pollution.

Policy Principles

Entrepreneurial activities be given the maximum encouragement and minimum impairment within clearly defined boundaries of equitably and environmentally sustainable development.
Everyone in Swaziland has the right to clean air, water, and land; conversely, no-one in Swaziland has the right to contaminate same without specific permission.

Policy Practical Elements

Self-regulation within polluting industries and commercial/professional associations be encouraged.
Emission control be integrated in all vehicle transfer procedures and licensing provisions.
Implement market-based measures to reduce the preponderance of no-deposit, no-return containers.

Policy Supportive Elements

A National Environmental Audit be carried out as a matter of urgency, determining the nature, extent and consequences - real and potential - of environmental contamination.
Liaise with the South African Environmental authorities - national and provincial - concerning cross-border contamination, the preponderance of no-deposit, no-return containers, and other areas of common concern.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General Strategic Approach

SEA to advise all lending institutions, public risk insurance companies and valuers of the possible consequences of contamination to the value of the land.
To advise polluters of their present and potential future responsibilities in cleaning up site contamination.
Local authorities to identify, isolate and monitor hazardous and toxic wastes in their dumps, and identify and develop sanitary land fills if the current sites do not meet environmental standards.
Local authorities to set up policing units for the enforcement of laws controlling waste disposal, littering etc.
To prohibit the siting of industrial facilities which are potentially hazardous to environmental health in residential areas, and the encroachment of residential uses to the proximity of such industrial facilities.
To formulate and institute strategies to safely and effectively manage the use of heavy metals, and as far as possible eliminate the uncontrolled exposure of heavy metals, in particular to women and children.

Sectoral specific strategies

Commercial and Retail Sector

To control and ban where practicable the sale and use of toxic agrochemicals, especially aldicarb, parathion, monocrotophos, dieldrin and DDT.
To introduce use control of toxic agrochemicals to include avoidance of spraying on windy days or in areas leaching to the water table, streams and rivers.
To ban the sale and use of lead paints.
To phase out leaded petrol, and at the same time introduce measures to limit the toxicity of unleaded petrol.
To prevent entry of photographic and dry cleaning wastes into the common public sewerage and solid waste disposal systems by setting up an independent disposal and recycling system.

Industrial Sector

To encourage industries to set up recycling or reuse plants within their premises or to embark on an environmentally sound treatment of their hazardous waste.
To encourage industries to adopt on a permanent basis, material, energy and water saving techniques and to aim for zero discharge of effluent in the course of recycling, cooling and processing water.
Industries to set up programmes for the cleanup of old and abandoned dumping sites, and any other sites where they have deposited contaminants.
To encourage industries to improve their technical capacities in hazardous waste disposal.
To institute free market environmentalism practices to 1) discourage pollution (property rights) and 2) encourage sound environmental management (tax reductions and other conducive benefits).
To set up monitoring facilities to register and record hazardous pollutants - e.g. a register of asbestos in buildings, particularly old buildings and asbestos in contact with acid.
To set up oil recycling depots in local authorities.

Community Participation Strategy

Local authorities, in cooperation with NGO's and the SEA, to educate the public on the hazards of contaminants, and on environmentally-friendly practices such as recycling.
To encourage companies that create environmental impacts to support environmental organisations financially, materially and otherwise.
To target industrial safety officers for education towards ensuring that workers are environmentally literate and understand the environment in which they are working.

Supportive Strategies

To consolidate, review and revise the pieces of scattered legislation, including occupational health and safety regulations, and ensure continued enforcement of the resulting legislation.
To set up comprehensive information bases, linked to the proposed land information system, with a main objective being to identify hazardous or potentially hazardous industrial areas.
To constitute management systems to ensure the systematic monitoring of the above.
To consolidate, review and revise the pieces of scattered legislation, update same in terms of new procedures for nucleotide disposal and newly introduced toxic pesticides etc., and ensure the continued enforcement of the resulting legislation.
To set up procedures for one-off and cyclic EIA's as appropriate.

KEY REFERENCE MATERIAL

Mavibela, S. 1993 The Clean World: Managing Chemicals and Waste.

McDermott, M. 1994. Site Contamination: Some International Effects on Property Values.

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITIES

MTEC, MEE, MNRE, MHUD, MHSW.

1.3.3 GREEN BELT, AGRICULTURAL AND RECREATIONAL

This policy is to address the issue of retaining areas of open space within urban environments - parklands, sports areas, greenways, and areas reserved in perpetuity for agricultural use (for the richness of their soils or for social amenity). The policies so decided are to be implemented through the Structure Plans of the relevant local authorities. They are to be cross referenced with forestry, tourism and crop production policy.

ISSUES SUMMARY

Much of the best arable land in Swaziland will be covered by urban development without appropriate safeguards.
The aesthetic impairment of hills face development.
Spatially undirected market forces will not allow any green belt, agricultural and recreational land to remain in urban areas once its development becomes economically rational.
Security problems in premises adjoining open areas, and unauthorised activities causing disturbances in open areas.
Habitat fragmentation in urban areas and its effect on ecosystem structure and function.

SUMMARY POLICY PROPOSALS

Status of Policy

Non-existent, save for de facto policies incorporated in existing Structure Plans.

Broad Overall Objectives

To ensure the incorporation and management of open spaces within and around urban environments, and to encourage the protection and planting of indigenous flora.
To ensure the adequate provision of parks, sport and recreational areas, public spaces and facilities, and plots of land for home gardening and urban agriculture.

Policy Principles

Green spaces and vegetation cover in urban areas be considered essential for biological and hydrological balance and economic development and be treated as such.
Urban green spaces are of significant social and educational value.
Swaziland's supply of arable land in general and the soil potential of the subject site in particular be considered in structure plans and thereby affect subdivision approvals.
Landscapes and urban flora and fauna be protected in open and green spaces.
Productive and recreational green belts around urban agglomerations be established in order to protect their environment and contribute to the provision of food products.
The conservation and sustainable use of urban biodiversity be promoted, including forests, local habitats and species biodiversity.
The transition from rural to urban lifestyles should allow scope for gradual change, and avoid abrupt change.

Policy Practical Elements

The proprietorial right to development to alternate uses be made inactionable and non-transferable in the hands of the local authority.
Permitted uses be actioned as early and extensively as possible, insofar as occupied and utilised land pre-empts illegal occupation.
Management of each area of green belt, agricultural and recreational land be made fully transparent and accountable, with appropriate rewards for effective management and penalties for mismanagement.

SUMMARY STRATEGY PROPOSALS

General Strategic Approach

To ensure the formulation and strict enforcement of Structure Plans incorporating green belt, agricultural and recreational land as permanent features of urban areas in Swaziland.

Practical Strategy Elements

Local authorities to create parks for the protection of endangered indigenous flora.
Local authorities, in cooperation with NGO's and the SEA, to encourage tree-planting programmes by schools, service clubs, and other community organisations.
To integrate healthy and environmentally sound agricultural activities such as permaculture into the planning of urban areas.
SEA and local authorities to stimulate the development of urban forestry and provide free tree-planting information e.g., recommended species, their recommended distances from foundations, water mains, etc.
Linear parks be cultivated along all stream banks in urban areas, in consort with the stricter enforcement of the Natural Resources Regulations 1951 (which freeze development for 33 metres both sides of stream banks).

Community Participation Strategy

Local authorities to encourage the formation of neighbourhood watch organisations in all urban areas, and such organisations to include adjoining green areas in their purview.
To establish community organisations to manage designated enclosed areas wherein local communities, particularly those on small plots, may practice urban agriculture.
Local authorities and local communities to cooperate in the provision and maintenance of recreational facilities accessible to all at minimal or no cost, such as playgrounds, football pitches, volleyball/netball/basketball courts etc.

Supportive Strategies

Surveyor-General to liaise with local authorities regarding requirements for spatial monitoring of green belt areas.
To strengthen management capacities to monitor green areas, inclusive of privatisation of some activities, the education and cooperation of law enforcement organisations, and to enhance the capacities of local authorities in accordance with the provisions of the Urban Government Policy.

MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITIES

MTEC (SEA & SNTC), MHUD, MOAC, MNRE.

Suggestions or comments. This page was last updated on 06 May 2003